Fire Impact on Diversity and Forest Structure of Castanea sativa Mill. Stands in Managed and Oldfield Areas of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain)
by
, ,
Cristina González-Montelongo
1
,
José Zoilo Hernández
2,
Domingo Ríos
3,
María Encarnación Velázquez-Barrera
3 and
José Ramón Arévalo
1,*
1
Department of Botany, Ecology and Plant Physiology, University of La Laguna, Canary Islands, Apartado Postal 456, 38200 La Laguna, Spain
2
Grupo de Acción Rural, Canary Islands, 38350 Tacoronte, Spain
3
Centro de Conservación de la Biodiversidad Agrícola de Tenerife (CCBAT), Servicio Técnico de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Cabildo, Insular de Tenerife, Canary Islands, 38400 Puerto de la Cruz, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(7), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071062
Submission received: 19 May 2025
/
Revised: 16 June 2025
/
Accepted: 23 June 2025
/
Published: 26 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem-Disturbance Interactions in Forests)
Abstract
Wildfires are integral to many forest ecosystems, yet their ecological effects are often influenced by historical land use and management. In this study, we assess the short-term impacts of fire and management on Castanea sativa Mill. stands in the fayal-brezal zone of northern Tenerife (Canary Islands), where traditional agroforestry systems have been widely abandoned. We established 12 transects across four stands: managed-burned, managed-unburned, oldfield-burned, and oldfield-unburned. We analyzed forest structure, understory species richness and composition, and soil nutrient content one year after a large wildfire. Forest structure has primarily been determined by management history, with oldfield plots showing greater tree density, basal area, and basal sprouting. Fire has had a limited effect on tree mortality, affecting ~10% of individuals on average. Understory species richness was significantly higher in managed plots, particularly those affected by fire, suggesting a positive interaction between disturbance and management. Species composition differed significantly among treatments, with Indicator Species Analysis identifying distinct taxa associated with each condition. Fire in oldfield plots led to increased compositional similarity with managed stands, indicating fire’s potential homogenizing effect. Principal Component Analysis of soil nutrients did not reveal clear treatment-related patterns, which was probably due to microenvironmental variability and the short post-fire interval. Overall, our results highlight the dominant role of land-use legacy in structuring these forests, with fire acting as a secondary but influential driver, revealing significant changes in species composition as well as in species richness. These findings have direct relevance for conservation and restoration strategies as well as for maintenance in these stands of Castanea sativa. They should also encourage managers of these protected areas, where land abandonment and fire are increasingly shaping forest dynamics.
1. Introduction
Humans have altered fire dynamics on Earth to such an extent that natural fire regimes are now rare. Human activities have modified fuel availability, altered ignition patterns, and reshaped the ecological role of fire. Even in currently uninhabited areas, the legacy of past human influence persists. Some landscapes have managed to adapt to, or even develop in parallel with, anthropogenic fire use [1]. However, it should be highlighted that forest fires are among the most widespread disturbances in forest ecosystems [2]. They have existed since the emergence of forests. Charcoal records provide evidence of fire activity dating back approximately 390 million years [3]. Natural ignition sources such as volcanic eruptions, spontaneous combustion, and lightning continue to influence forest ecosystems [4]. Consequently, many species have evolved traits that allow them to survive under recurrent fire regimes. Thus, forest fires should not be viewed solely as destructive forces but rather as integral ecological processes [5,6,7], provided their frequency and intensity are not disrupted by human-induced changes.
Castanea sativa Mill. (chestnut) arrived on the Iberian Peninsula approximately 7000 years ago, although its cultivation for production purposes did not begin until the Roman period in the first century CE. In the Canary Islands, it was introduced during the European conquest in the 15th century. The species was planted for one reason: to stabilize forest soils and prevent landslides following deforestation in laurel forest areas, which had been cleared for sugarcane cultivation [8]. Subsequently, it has been used for multiple purposes such as food production (as evidenced by the many chestnut-based recipes), timber for furniture and basketry, and as livestock fodder. Agriculture remained the dominant economic activity in the Canary Islands until the 1960s, with a high reliance on local food production. However, a rapid shift occurred with the migration of labor from agriculture to the tourism sector, leading to the abandonment of large areas of terraced farmland [9]. This abandonment has contributed to severe erosion and soil degradation across the archipelago. In Tenerife, this process has also impacted chestnut cultivation, with approximately 50% of chestnut-growing areas now nearly abandoned. In the specific stands studied here, abandonment occurred approximately 20–25 years ago [10].
Several studies have explored the effects of fire on Castanea sativa in both managed and unmanaged stands. The species, particularly when represented by coppice shoots with smooth bark, exhibits a strong post-fire survival strategy. It regenerates aerial biomass lost to fire through vigorous vegetative resprouting from its bud bank [11]. In unmanaged forests, fire has been shown to promote the establishment of invasive species, with more pronounced effects in these less-disturbed systems [12].
In the Canary Islands, wildfires predominantly affect pine forests and tend not to recur at the same site within a 20-year interval [13]. A 15-year study of fire effects in these ecosystems found that such events do not cause substantial disruption to natural ecological processes [14,15]. In August 2023, a major wildfire affected approximately 12,000 hectares on the island of Tenerife, burning several important Castanea sativa stands, both managed and unmanaged. Analyzing the impact of this wildfire on these agroforestry systems is essential to promote the conservation of this landscape, given that some economic activity is still sustained [10].
In this study, we test the following hypotheses: (1) wildfire has a limited impact on the survival of Castanea sativa individuals; (2) post-fire species’ richness increases, particularly in managed stands; and (3) species composition will be affected favoring more fire-prone species as a function of fire occurrence and stand management. These findings aim to provide useful information for forest managers involved in the conservation and sustainable use of chestnut stands.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
The study was conducted in the fayal-brezal (laurel heath) zone located in the north of Tenerife (Figure 1), Canary Islands (Spain). This vegetation type is typically found between 600 and 1200 m above sea level. The climate in this zone is strongly influenced by trade winds, resulting in high humidity and frequent cloud cover, which support the development of evergreen shrubs and tree species. Bioclimatically, it falls within the subhumid Mediterranean pluvial bioclimatic zone, with average temperatures of 15 °C and total annual precipitation of around 560 mm/yr.
Dominant species include Morella faya (Aiton) Wilbur and Erica canariensis Rivas-Mart., M. Osorio, and Wildpret, with the occasional presence of other laurel forest elements such as Ilex canariensis Poir. and Laurus novocanariensis Rivas-Mart., Lousa, Fern. Prieto, E. Días, J.C. Costa, and C. Aguiar.
Historically, the fayal-brezal has been subject to human disturbance through selective logging, charcoal production, and grazing, although many areas have been recovering since the implementation of conservation policies and natural regeneration [16]. The soils are generally andisol derived from volcanic substrates, supporting a rich understory and high levels of endemism [17].
The presence of the chestnut tree in the Canary Islands has been referenced in the literature since Spanish colonization [8,18]. Currently, the largest area of chestnut trees is in the vegetation zones of the laurel forest (monteverde) in Tenerife. These are located between the highlands of La Orotava Valley and the highlands of the municipalities of Santa Úrsula, La Victoria, La Matanza, and El Sauzal, at altitudes between 800 and 1000 m on the north-facing slopes of the island. In the rest of the island, chestnut trees are scattered around various locations.
In Tenerife, the chestnut tree has been used for multiple purposes over the years. The larger fruits can be consumed fresh, while the smaller ones were used as animal feed. The wood was used to make furniture, wine presses, barrel staves, tools, and ship hulls, etc. The shoots were also used to make baskets and tools, the dry leaves were used as livestock bedding, and the green ones as fodder. This crop is also gastronomically important [19,20].
The chestnut tree and its behavior within laurel forest stands led it to be included in the Canary Island Forest Plan (1999) [21]. This plan proposed reforestation with the aim of establishing mixed and productive stands to promote socioeconomic development.
However, in 2011, Castanea sativa was included in the list of invasive exotic species for the Canary Islands in the National Catalogue [Royal Decree 1628/2011, of 14 November (BOE No. 298, 12 December 2011)] [22], under the designation “species with invasive potential”. The National Catalogue of Invasive Exotic Species takes precedence over the Canary Island Forest Plan, and therefore, the management of this species should not aim to promote its spread in natural and semi-natural environments, but rather to control and eradicate this tree from the natural environment. Although the status of the chestnut tree did not undergo significant changes, its inclusion in the catalogue, along with other traditional agricultural species, sparked considerable public opposition. This pressure led to its removal under Royal Decree 630/2013, of 2 August, which regulates the Spanish Catalogue of Invasive Exotic Species (BOE No. 185, 3 August 2013) [23].
In August 2023, a significant wildfire occurred on the island of Tenerife, Spain, affecting approximately 11,966 hectares. The fire began on August 15 and was declared inactive in October. It impacted multiple municipalities, including protected natural areas such as the Teide National Park and La Corona Forestal Park. Much of the burned area consisted of forested regions, notably coniferous and broadleaf forests, including a large percentage of chestnut stands.
2.2. Sampling Design
Among the Castanea sativa stands, we distinguish between managed and oldfield (abandoned managed stands), and among these stands burned and unburned stands can be separated. While oldfield stands are abandoned, managed stands are cleared periodically, in some areas. These cleared areas under the chestnuts are used for growing potato andisols. Twelve transects of 50 × 5 m were systematically selected in these areas, three in each of the four categories: burned-oldfield, burned-managed, control-oldfield and control-managed (which we will consider to be the treatments). We selected these transects in the middle of the stands, avoiding border effects and other environmental variability, following the terraces in which these trees were introduced (Table 1). One of the plots (P1QE) revealed low canopy cover due to the lower understory development that did not reach the canopy level.
In each of the selected transects, we measured the land altitude and slope and estimated the canopy cover of the stand using a convex spherical crown densitometer [24].
For the description of the forest structure, we measured DBH (diameter at breast height) for all the trees species on the transects. We considered trees to be individuals whose stems were ≥5 cm DBH. Previous studies recommend these classifications following the physiognomy of these species [25]. The maximum height for the Castanea sativa trees on the transects and for the other trees was noted for the transect. When the trees came from the same coppice, this was also noted and all the basal sprouts below a 5 cm diameter were counted.
For species diversity composition, each 5 m, starting from the beginning of the transect, we established five 5 × 5 m plots in which the species composition was noted. Cover for all the species on the plot surfaces was estimated and recorded on a scale of 1 to 9 (cover classes: 1: traces; 2: >1% of cover in the plot; 3: 1%–2%; 4: 2%–5%; 5: 5%–10%; 6: 10%–25%; 7: 25%–50%; 8: 50%–75%; 9: >75%). The taxonomic identities of the plant specimens were determined. For the species names, we followed the checklist of wild species of the Canary Islands [26]. Plot position and altitude were measured using a global positioning system (GPS; Etrex, Garmin Ltd., Olathe, KS, USA).
We collected combined soil samples from the top 10 cm of soil on the transects (5 samples mixed by transect). The pH (saturated paste), EC (exchangeable cations, mS/cm), Olsen P (ppm), organic matter (OM), available cations in meq/100 g (Na, K, Ca, Mg), and EC (Cationic Interchange Complex, meq/100 g) were analyzed. Standard methods of analysis were followed [27,28].
2.3. Statistical Analysis
A one-way distance-based permutational permanova [29] was performed for comparison between treatments (as factors) for species richness and Smith and Wilson evenness [30]. The analyses were based on the Bray–Curtis distance of raw data, with p-values < 0.05 obtained with 9999 permutations and a Monte Carlo correction where necessary. For the post hoc test, we also used the Dunm test. The analyses were carried out using the Vegan R Package (version 2.7-1) [31].
An MRPP (Multi-Response Permutation Procedure) was used to determine changes in species composition between the control and exclusion plots with a matrix based on cover. The Bray–Curtis distance was used for this analysis [32]. For the same data matrix, an Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) was used to determine the significant representative species in each group [33]. The analyses were carried out on PCOrd [31]. For the same data matrix, an ISI was used to determine the significant representative species in each group [33].
We used DCA (Detrended Correspondence Analysis) [33]) to analyze the species composition (based on species cover) of plots with different treatments. DCA is a gradient analytical method that provides results continuously in the space determined by the axis and an assumed unimodal distribution of species along the gradient, as expected in ecological studies. Other methods, like NMDS, do not assume this aspect of the data [34]. The CANOCO program version 5.1 was used for all multivariate analyses [35]. Plots of different treatments were enclosed in polygons to reveal in the bidimensional space of axis I and II of DCA discrimination on species composition. PCA (Principal Components Analysis) was used to analyze the soil nutrient characteristics, including, in the matrix, the variables pH, %OM, total N, P, K, Na, Mg, Ca, and EC.
3. Results
During September and November 2024, we sampled the selected transects. After one year, the forest structure primarily reflected the management regime rather than the effects of fire, which were evident in terms of tree mortality or damage rates. The tree species’ richness in the oldfield plots, regardless of fire occurrence, averaged 2.6 species per transect. In contrast, the managed plots showed significantly lower values, with an average of only one species (Table 2). Consequently, both tree density and basal area were considerably higher in the oldfield plots, reaching values exceeding 2823 m2/ha for the basal area and 4400 individuals/ha for density in some transects (Table 2). Basal resprouting was also observed exclusively in the oldfield plots (Table 3).
Fire impact, measured as the proportion of affected trees, averaged approximately 10% per transect. An exception was observed in transect P1QE, where over 50% of individuals were affected. This high value, however, was largely driven by smaller individuals of Castanea sativa.
The presence of native and endemic species is linked to oldfield transects, regardless of whether a forest fire occurred or not (nine and seven species, respectively). However, the control plots show a greater diversity of native and endemic species compared to the burned plots (17 and 0 species, respectively). Only three invasive species were observed in the environments analyzed: Tropaeolum majus L. was observed in only one unburned managed transect, Spartium junceum L. was observed in one burned managed transect, and Oxalis pes-caprae L. was found in all sampled transects except in P3CA (Appendix B).
In the understory, a total of 67 vascular plant species were recorded across all treatments (some of them only identify to genera). The highest species richness was observed in the managed plots, both burned and unburned, with mean values of 13 ± 2.3 and 9.3 ± 3.4 species per transect, respectively. In contrast, the oldfield plots exhibited lower richness, with averages of 6.5 ± 1.9 and 7.6 ± 2.8 species in burned and unburned conditions, respectively. Differences in species richness were statistically significant (F3,55 = 16.78, p < 0.001; Figure 2a), and post hoc comparisons confirmed significantly higher richness in burned, managed plots. No significant differences were found in the evenness between treatments (F3,55 = 0.41, p > 0.05; Figure 2b).
Community composition based on species cover also differed significantly between treatments, as indicated by the MRPP analysis (T = –26.11, A = 0.2316, p < 0.0001).
Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) with 1000 permutations identified characteristic species for each treatment. Control-oldfield plots were associated significatively with Brachypodium sylvaticum (Huds.) P. Beauv., Daphne gnidium L., and Laurus novocanariensis; control-managed plots with Fumaria sp., Hypochaeris sp., Ornithopus compressus L., Solanum tuberosum L., and Spergula sp.; burned-oldfield plots with Viburnum rugosum Pers.; and burned-managed plots with Bidens pilosa L., Chenopodium album L., Erigeron sumatrensis Retz., Galium aparine L., Galactites tomentosus Moench, Solanum nigrum L., Sonchus oleraceus L., Stellaria media (L.) Vill., and Vicia sp.
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) did not reveal consistent patterns in the nutrients analyzed associated with fire or management history along any of the principal axes (Appendix A; Figure 3). Nonetheless, a general tendency was observed in the ordination space, where burned plots were more frequently positioned on the left side of axis I, while control plots clustered predominantly on the right. This lack of consistent differences may be explained by high microenvironmental heterogeneity, potentially driven by variations in historical land use and the length of time since abandonment.
Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) indicated that management history was the primary factor influencing species composition across treatments. Species assemblages in managed plots, both burned and unburned, were relatively similar and characterized by high scores on DCA axis I. Dominant taxa in these plots included Chenopodiastrum murale (L.) S. Fuentes, Uotila and Borsch, Erigeron bonariensis, Solanum tuberosum, Lathyrus tingitanus L., and Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link. In contrast, species composition in thw oldfield plots differed notably. Among these, the unburned oldfield plots showed the greatest divergence, with a distinct set of dominant species such as Geranium reuteri Aedo and Muñoz Garm., Micromeria sp., Urtica morifolia Poir., Brachypodium sylvaticum, Erica canariensis, and Morella faya.
The burned oldfield plots, however, exhibited greater compositional similarity to the managed plots, suggesting some degree of convergence in vegetation structure and floristic composition following fire disturbance (Figure 4).
4. Discussion
One year after fire disturbance, the forest structure remained primarily shaped by management history rather than fire effects. This was evident in metrics such as the tree density, basal area, and the presence of basal resprouting. The oldfield plots supported a more structurally complex forest, with a significantly higher tree density and basal area compared to the managed stands, aligning with findings in other temperate and Mediterranean ecosystems where management practices such as thinning or coppicing reduce stand density and simplify forest structure [36].
The limited impact of fire on forest structure in the short-term, except for the high mortality observed in a single transect (P1QE), suggests that Castanea sativa exhibits notable resilience, particularly older individuals. Fire has a heterogeneous impact that is revealed in the situation of this transect correlating with high mortality. This is consistent with previous studies highlighting the species’ ability to resprout following moderate fire events, especially when originating from coppice shoots [37,38]. The high mortality observed in P1QE appears to be associated with smaller individuals, which are more susceptible to crown scorch and cambial damage due to thinner bark and lower carbohydrate reserves [39].
In terms of understory composition, managed plots, particularly those subjected to fire, harbored significantly higher species richness than their oldfield counterparts, as revealed by the statistical analyses. This finding supports previous research indicating that moderate disturbance can enhance plant diversity by opening the canopy and increasing light availability, promoting the establishment of both early-successional and opportunistic species (e.g., Bidens pilosa, Chenopodiastrum murale, and Echium plantagineum L.) [40].
The relatively low richness in the oldfield plots may be attributed to the development of dense canopies and accumulated litter, which can limit light penetration and seedling establishment, particularly for herbaceous and annual species [41]. While evenness did not differ significantly across the treatments, changes in species composition were evident. The MRPP analysis confirmed significant floristic differences among the treatments, indicating that both fire and management influence community assembly.
Indicator Species Analysis further revealed that certain taxa were strongly associated with specific treatment combinations. For instance, Fumaria spp. and Hypochoeris spp. were closely linked to managed-control plots, while species such as Vicia spp. and Sonchus oleraceus were prominent in burned, managed plots. In contrast, taxa like Brachypodium sylvaticum and Daphne gnidium were indicative of oldfield, unburned conditions, potentially reflecting late-successional tendencies or shade tolerance. These findings underscore the importance of considering both disturbance regimes and management history in the conservation and restoration of chestnut-dominated woodlands, particularly in Mediterranean island ecosystems where oldfield and fire-affected areas are increasingly prevalent [42,43].
The results of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) did not show clear clustering of the treatments based on nutrient content, suggesting that neither fire nor management history produced a consistent effect on soil chemical composition at the time of sampling. In this case, the absence of a clear pattern one year after the fire event may be attributed to the short temporal window, during which post-fire nutrient fluxes might have already stabilized or been redistributed.
In contrast, the Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) revealed a much clearer signal, highlighting management as the dominant factor shaping species composition. This is consistent with a large body of the literature documenting the long-term influence of land-use history on plant community structure and diversity, particularly in Mediterranean and island ecosystems where the abandonment of traditional agroforestry practices leads to marked successional shifts [43,44].
Species composition in managed plots, whether burned or unburned, remained relatively stable and was characterized by a common assemblage of species adapted to periodic disturbance and open conditions. These included Chenopodiastrum murale, Erigeron bonariensis, Solanum tuberosum, Lathyrus tingitanus, and Torilis arvensis, which are typically associated with anthropogenically influenced environments. This convergence suggests that fire has had a limited impact on floristic differentiation in managed stands, possibly because such systems maintain high levels of disturbance-tolerant or ruderal species [45].
Conversely, the greatest compositional divergence was found in unburned oldfield plots, which hosted a distinct suite of native and endemic species such as Geranium reuteri, Micromeria sp., Urtica morifolia, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Cistus monspeliensis L., Erica canariensis, and Morella faya. These taxa are likely to represent more shade-tolerant, late-successional species that are established under closed-canopy conditions favored by long-term abandonment [41,46]. The burned oldfield plots showed higher compositional similarity to the managed plots, suggesting that fire may act as a resetting force, facilitating the re-establishment of early-successional or disturbance-adapted species. This aligns with the concept of disturbances such as fires or windstorms acting as a homogenizing agent in successional trajectories, particularly when it disrupts closed-canopy systems and reinstates conditions favorable to light-demanding species [5,47].
5. Conclusions
This study was conducted one year after the wildfire and it has already revealed significant effects on species composition and richness. Long-term monitoring in subsequent years is essential to assess the recovery trajectories of these ecosystems and to determine how fast they can return to their pre-disturbance state. Overall, these findings highlight a complex interplay between fire and land-use legacies in shaping species composition and ecosystem recovery. While fire alone did not significantly alter nutrient profiles, it had a stronger influence on plant-community dynamics in oldfield plots, effectively narrowing the compositional gap between them and managed systems. This has important implications for restoration and management planning, particularly in landscapes with a mosaic of land-use histories where fire might serve as a tool to halt late-successional homogenization under abandonment. To maintain this mosaic, managers of these protected areas should consider the maintenance of the agricultural landscape.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, C.G.-M., D.R. and J.R.A.; methodology, C.G.-M. and J.R.A.; validation C.G.-M.; formal analysis, C.G.-M. and J.R.A.; investigation, C.G.-M., J.Z.H., M.E.V.-B. and J.R.A.; curation, C.G.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, C.G.-M. and J.R.A.; writing—review and editing, C.G.-M., J.Z.H., D.R., M.E.V.-B. and J.R.A.; supervision, C.G.-M.; project administration, D.R.; funding acquisition, D.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was partially funded by the Cabildo Insular de Tenerife (Servicio de Agricultura). Proyect code: E2024012583. “Seguimiento de la respuesta al incendio de agosto de 2023 en las zonas de castaño (Castanea sativa Mill.) en mantenimiento y abandonadas en el norte de Tenerife e incidencia de la recolonización de la vegetación potencial en el mantenimiento del cultivo tras el incendio”.
Data Availability Statement
Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Cabildo Insular de Tenerife for their support of the project. Special thanks to D. Adrián Pereyra Peña and D. Diego Francisco Toledo (Cabildo Insular de Tenerife) for their help with the fieldwork.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Appendix A
Soil-nutrient characteristics for the transects studied.
| Transect | pH | OM% | P | Ca | Mg | K | Na | EC |
| ppm | meq/100 g | |||||||
| P1CA | 6.15 | 6.32 | 23.30 | 7.33 | 4.91 | 0.91 | 0.95 | 0.141 |
| P2CA | 5.81 | 5.45 | 30.41 | 4.76 | 3.22 | 0.66 | 0.88 | 0.137 |
| P3CA | 6.26 | 6.05 | 38.71 | 13.44 | 8.42 | 1.33 | 1.20 | 0.167 |
| P1CE | 5.25 | 5.25 | 52.94 | 6.13 | 1.29 | 1.15 | 0.65 | 0.273 |
| P2CE | 6.31 | 4.68 | 36.93 | 8.98 | 4.98 | 3.69 | 0.92 | 0.137 |
| P3CE | 5.09 | 5.75 | 58.27 | 3.31 | 0.80 | 1.47 | 0.61 | 0.229 |
| P1QA | 6.63 | 6.18 | 27.45 | 12.98 | 8.59 | 0.93 | 0.90 | 0.142 |
| P2QA | 6.52 | 5.88 | 27.45 | 12.94 | 7.33 | 0.78 | 0.85 | 0.152 |
| P3QA | 6.28 | 5.37 | 50.57 | 9.25 | 6.67 | 0.55 | 0.84 | 0.113 |
| P1QE | 5.95 | 4.60 | 26.26 | 5.13 | 1.51 | 2.25 | 0.69 | 0.174 |
| P2QE | 5.45 | 4.82 | 103.33 | 4.42 | 1.76 | 1.16 | 0.64 | 0.147 |
| P3QE | 6.04 | 5.29 | 35.75 | 10.75 | 6.03 | 2.14 | 0.82 | 0.143 |
Appendix B
Species list indicating its origin (NS: native; ISN: invasive; NP: native probably; IP: invasive probably) and if endemism, it is marked with an asterisk.
| Species | Code | Origin | Endemism |
| Aichryson laxum (Haw.) Bramwell | Aila | NS | * |
| Anethum foeniculum L. | Fovu | ISN | |
| Andryala sp. | Ansp | ||
| Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. | Asad | NS | |
| Bidens pilosa L. | Bipi | ISN | |
| Brachypodium distachyon (L.) P. Beauv. | Brdi | NP | |
| Brassicaceae | Brsp | ||
| Brachypodium sylvaticum (Huds.) P. Beauv. | Brsy | NP | |
| Castanea sativa Mill. | Casa | ISI | |
| Allium sp. | Allium | ||
| Apium sp. | Apium | ||
| Asphodelus sp. | Asphodelus | ||
| Fumaria sp. | Fumaria | ||
| Geranium sp. | Geranium | ||
| Gladiolus sp. | Gladiolus | ||
| Hypochaeris sp. | Hypochaeris | ||
| Spergula sp. | Spergula | ||
| Chenopodiastrum murale (L.) S. Fuentes, Uotila & Borsch | Chmu | IP | |
| Chenopodium album L. | Chal | NP | |
| Cistus symphytifolius Lam. | Cisy | NS | * |
| Cistus monspeliensis L. | Cymo | NP | |
| Cyperus sp. | Cysp | ||
| Davallia canariensis (L.) Sm. | Daca | NS | |
| Daphne gnidium L. | Dagn | NS | |
| Digitalis canariensis L. | Isca | NS | * |
| Echium plantagineum L. | Ecpl | NP | |
| Erica canariensis Rivas-Mart., M. Osorio & Wildpret | Erar | NS | |
| Erigeron bonariensis L. | Cobo | ISN | |
| Erigeron sumatrensis Retz. | Cosu | ISN | |
| Erigeron sp. | Cosp | ||
| Fabaceae | Fasp | ||
| Galium aparine L. | Gaap | NP | |
| Galium scabrum L. | Gasc | NP | |
| Galactites tomentosus Moench | Gato | NP | |
| Geranium reuteri Aedo & Muñoz Garm. | Gere | NS | * |
| Hypericum grandifolium Choisy | Hygr | NS | |
| Ilex canariensis Poir | Ilca | NS | |
| Laurus novocanariensis Rivas-Mart., Lousa, Fern. Prieto, E. Días, J.C. Costa & C. Aguiar | Lano | NS | * |
| Lathyrus tingitanus L. | Lati | IP | |
| Lathyrus sp. | Lathyrus | ||
| Lupinus sp. | Lusp | ||
| Lysimachia arvensis (L.) U. Manns & Anderb. | Anar | NP | |
| Micromeria sp. | Micromeria | NS | * |
| Morella faya (Aiton) Wilbur | Myfa | NS | |
| Myosotis sp. | Myosotis | ||
| Ornithopus compressus L. | Orco | NP | |
| Origanum vulgare L. | Orvi | NP | |
| Oxalis pes-caprae L. | Oxpe | ISI | |
| Poaceae | Gram | ||
| Polygonum aviculare L. | Poav | NP | |
| Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn in Von der Decken | Ptaq | NP | |
| Ranunculus cortusifolius Willd. | Raco | NS | |
| Rumex sp. | Rumex | ||
| Rubus ulmifolius Schott | Ruul | NP | |
| Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke | Siin | NP | |
| Smilax aspera L. | Smas | NS | |
| Solanum villosum Mill. subsp. miniatum (Bernh. ex Willd.) Edmonds | Soal | NP | |
| Solanum nigrum L. | Soni | NP | |
| Solanum tuberosum L. | Sotu | ISN | |
| Sonchus oleraceus L. | Sool | NP | |
| Spartium junceum L. | Spju | ISI | |
| Stellaria media (L.) Vill. | Stme | IP | |
| Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link | Toar | NP | |
| Tropaeolum majus L. | Trma | ISI | |
| Urtica stachyoides Webb & Berthel. | Urst | NS | * |
| Vicia disperma DC. | Vidi | NP | |
| Viburnum rugosum Pers. | Viru | NS | * |
| Vicia sp. | Vicia |
References
- Pyne, S.J. Fire: A Brief History; NewSouth Publishing: Sydney, Australia, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Pickett, S.T.A.; White, P.S. The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1985. [Google Scholar]
- Rowe, N.P.; Jones, T.P. Devonian charcoal. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2000, 164, 347–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Song, Y.; Xu, C.; Li, X.; Oppong, F. Lightning-Induced Wildfires: An Overview. Fire 2024, 7, 79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pausas, J.; Keeley, J.E. Wildfires as an ecosystem service. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2019, 17, 289–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arévalo, J.R.; Álvarez, P.; Narvaez, N.; Walker, K. The effects of fire in the regeneration of a Quercus douglasii stand in Quail Ridge Reserve, Berryessa Valley (California). J. For. Res. 2009, 14, 81–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arno, S.F.; Fiedler, C.E. Mimicking Nature’s: Restoring Fire-Prone Forests in the West; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Serra Ràfols, E. Las datas de Tenerife (Libros de I a IV de datos originales); Fontes Rerum Canarium. Colección de textos y documentos para la Historia de Canarias. XII; Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas; Instituto de Estudios Canarios en la Universidad de La Laguna: La Laguna, Spain, 1978; p. 423. [Google Scholar]
- Martín, V. Los Paisajes Agrarios. In Gran Atlas Temático de Canarias; Morales, G., Pérez, R., Eds.; Editorial Insular Canaria: Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain, 2000; pp. 87–106. [Google Scholar]
- Hernández, A.; Hernández, J.Z. Veinte años de desarrollo rural endógeno en Canarias: Evolución y retos pendientes. In La Sociología en Canarias (1999–2019); Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y de la Comunicación ULL y Colegio Oficial de Ciencias Políticas y Sociología de Canarias: Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain, 2020; pp. 31–50. [Google Scholar]
- Conedera, M.; Lucini, L.; Valese, E.; Ascoli, D.; Pezzatti, G.B. Fire resistance and vegetative recruitment ability of different deciduous tree species after low-to-moderate-intensity surface fires in southern Switzerland. In VI International Conference on Forest Fire Research; ADAI/CEIF University of Coimbra: Coimbra, Portugal, 2010; p. 12. [Google Scholar]
- Saulino, L.; Rita, A.; Stinca, A.; Liuzzi, G.; Silvestro, R.; Rossi, S.; Saracino, A. Wildfire promotes the invasion of Robinia pseudoacacia in the unmanaged Mediterranean Castanea sativa coppice forests. Front. For. Glob. Change 2023, 6, 1177551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Del Arco, M.J.; Pérez, P.L.; Rodríguez, O.; Salas, M.; Wildpret, W. Atlas Cartográfico de los Pinares Canarios II: Tenerife; Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente y Conservación de la Naturaleza, Gobierno de Canarias: Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Arévalo, J.R.; Bernardos, M.; González-Montelongo, C.; Grillo, F. Prescribed Burning Effect on the Richness, Diversity and Forest Structure of an Endemic Reforested Pinus canariensis Stand (Canary Islands). Fire 2023, 6, 150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Del Arco, M.; González-González, R.; Garzón-Machado, V.; Pizarro-Hernández, B. Climate change impacts on vegetation in the Canary Islands: A review. Land 2019, 8, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernández-Palacios, J.M.; Arévalo, J.R. Regeneration strategies of tree species in the laurel forest of Tenerife. Plant Ecol. 1998, 137, 21–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernández-Caldas, E.; Tejedor, M.; Quantin, P. Los Suelos Volcánicos de Canarias; Servicio de Publicaciones de La Universidad de La Laguna: La Laguna, Spain, 1985. [Google Scholar]
- Ríos-Mesa, D.; Pereira-Lorenzo, S.; González-Díaz, A.J.; González-Díaz, E. Hernández-González, J.Z.; González-Díaz, E.; Galán Saúco, V. The status of Chestnut cultivation and utilization in the Canary Islands. Adv. Hortic. Sci. 2011, 25, 90–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pereira, S.; Ríos, D.; González, A.J.; Ramos, A.M. Los castañeros de Canarias. In Caracterización Morfológica y Molecular de las Variedades de Tenerife y La Palma; CCBAT–CAP: Canary Islands, Spain, 2007; ISBN 84-87340-80-6. [Google Scholar]
- Ríos-Mesa, D. La Castaña. Cabildo Insular de Tenerife, Área de Aguas, Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca, Servicio Técnico de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural. In Cocinando con Castañas de Tenerife; Cabildo Insular de Tenerife: Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain, 2004; pp. 11–39. [Google Scholar]
- Plan Forestal de Canarias. ANUNCIO de 7 de julio de 1999. In Proceedings of the por el que se hace público el Acuerdo Adoptado por el Gobierno de la Comunidad Autónoma de Canarias en la sesión de 25 de mayo de 1999, de Aprobación del Plan Forestal de Canarias. BOC n.º 117, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain, 31 August 1999; pp. 13092–13093. [Google Scholar]
- Real Decreto 1628/2011, de 14 de noviembre, por el que se regula el listado y catálogo español de especies exóticas invasoras. In BOE n.º 298, de 12 de Diciembre de 2011; Referencia: BOE-A-2011-19398; Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino: Madrid, Spain, 2011.
- Real Decreto 630/2013, de 2 de agosto, por el que se regula el Catálogo español de especies exóticas invasoras. In BOE n.º 185, de 3 de Agosto de 2013; Referencia: BOE-A-2013-8565; Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino: Madrid, Spain, 2011.
- Lemmon, P.E. A new instrument for measuring forest overstory density. J For. 1957, 55, 667–668. [Google Scholar]
- Arévalo, J.R.; Fernández-Palacios, J.M. Treefall gap characteristics and regeneration in the laurel forest of Tenerife. J. Veg. Sci. 2009, 9, 297–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Banco de Datos de Biodiversidad de Canarias. Gobierno de Canarias. Available online: https://www.biodiversidadcanarias.es/biota (accessed on 5 April 2025).
- AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemist, 15th ed.; AOAC: Arlington, VA, USA, 1990. [Google Scholar]
- Anon. Official Methods of Analysis; Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación: Madrid, Spain, 1986; Volume I. [Google Scholar]
- Anderson, M.; Gorley, R.N.; Clarke, R.K. Permanova+ for Primer: Guide to Software and Statistical Methods; PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, B.; Wilson, J.B. A consumer’s guide to evenness indices. Oikos 1996, 76, 70–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oksanen, J.; Blanchet, F.G.; Friendly, M.; Kindt, R.; Legendre, P.; McGlinn, D.; Minchin, P.R.; O’Hara, R.B.; Simpson, G.L.; Solymos, P.; et al. Vegan: Community Ecology Package. R Package Version 2.5-7. 2020. Available online: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan (accessed on 5 April 2025).
- McCune, B.; Grace, J.B.; Urban, D.L. Analysis of Ecological Communities; MjM Software Design: Gleneden Beach, OR, USA, 2002; Volume 28. [Google Scholar]
- De Cáceres, M.; Legendre, P.; Moretti, M. Improving indicator species analysis by combining groups of sites. Oikos 2010, 119, 1674–1684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ter Braak, C.J.F.; Šmilauer, P. CANOCO Reference Manual and CanoDraw for Windows User’s Guide: Software for Canonical Community Ordination (Version 5.1); Microcomputer Power: Ithaca, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Hill, M.O.; Gauch, H.J. Detrended Correspondence Analysis: An improved ordination technique. Vegetatio 1980, 42, 47–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valbuena-Carabaña, M.; López de Heredia, U.; Fuentes-Utrilla, P.; González-Doncel, I.; Gil, L. Historical and recent changes in the Spanish forests: A socio-economic process. Rev. Biol. Trop. 2010, 58, 1127–1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conedera, M.; Krebs, P.; Tinner, W.; Pradella, M.; Torriani, D. The cultivation of Castanea sativa (Mill.) in Europe, from its origin to its diffusion on a continental scale. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 2004, 13, 161–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernandes, P.M.; Davies, G.M.; Ascoli, D.; Fernández, C.; Moreira, F.; Rigolot, E.; Vega, J.A.; Molina, D. Prescribed burning in southern Europe: Developing fire management in a dynamic landscape. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2013, 11 (Suppl. S1), e4–e14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grime, J.P. Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature 1973, 242, 344–347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pausas, J.G.; Ribeiro, E.; Vallejo, R. Post-fire regeneration variability of Pinus halepensis in the eastern Iberian Peninsula. For. Ecol. Manag. 2004, 203, 251–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perring, M.P.; Standish, R.J.; Hobbs, R.J. Incorporating novelty and novel ecosystems into restoration planning and practice in the 21st century. Ecol. Process. 2015, 4, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blondel, J. The Mediterranean Region: Biological Diversity in Space and Time; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Santana, J.; Reino, L.; Stoate, C.; Moreira, F.; Ribeiro, P.F.; Beja, P. Combined effects of landscape composition and heterogeneity on farmland avian diversity. Ecol. Evol. 2017, 7, 1212–1223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Plieninger, T.; Hui, C.; Gaertner, M.; Huntsinger, L. The impact of land abandonment on species richness and abundance in the Mediterranean Basin: A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e98355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xiao, H.; Smith, K.; López-Vertedor, G.; Zhang, L.; Martínez-Fernández, M. Global functional trait responses of graminoids to fire regimes: A meta-analysis. Fire 2023, 6, 329. [Google Scholar]
- Dupouey, J.L.; Dambrine, E.; Laffite, J.D.; Moares, C. Irreversible impact of past land use on forest soils and biodiversity. Ecology 2002, 83, 2978–2984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kobziar, L.N.; Hiers, J.K.; Belcher, C.M.; Bond, W.J.; Enquist, C.A.; Loudermilk, E.L.; O’Brien, J.J.; Pausas, J.G.; Prichard, S.J.; Smith, A.M.S.; et al. Principles of Fire Ecology. Fire Ecol. 2024, 20, 39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1.
Location of the transects in the north of Tenerife.
Figure 2.
Boxplots of (a) species richness and (b) evenness in the four transect categories (CA: control-oldfield; CE: control-managed; QA: burned-oldfield, and QE: burned-managed). Individual data points are displayed using jittered dots to improve visibility. Boxes represent the interquartile range (Q1–Q3), the horizontal line within each box indicates the median, and whiskers extend to 1.5 times the interquartile range. Outliers beyond this range are also shown. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences between groups (post hoc Dunm test, p < 0.05, n = 15).
Figure 2.
Boxplots of (a) species richness and (b) evenness in the four transect categories (CA: control-oldfield; CE: control-managed; QA: burned-oldfield, and QE: burned-managed). Individual data points are displayed using jittered dots to improve visibility. Boxes represent the interquartile range (Q1–Q3), the horizontal line within each box indicates the median, and whiskers extend to 1.5 times the interquartile range. Outliers beyond this range are also shown. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences between groups (post hoc Dunm test, p < 0.05, n = 15).
Figure 3.
Principal component analysis (PCA) of the soil samples of the transects and nutrient variables. Variables used appear as arrows. Burned transects are in black while control is in green. The matrix used for this analysis appears in Appendix B (eigenvalue for axis I: 0.69, eigenvalue for axis II: 0.15, cumulative percentage of variance explained for axes I and II: 85.2%).
Figure 3.
Principal component analysis (PCA) of the soil samples of the transects and nutrient variables. Variables used appear as arrows. Burned transects are in black while control is in green. The matrix used for this analysis appears in Appendix B (eigenvalue for axis I: 0.69, eigenvalue for axis II: 0.15, cumulative percentage of variance explained for axes I and II: 85.2%).
Figure 4.
Detrended correspondence analysis axes I and II. Species coordinates and transects coordinates. Polygons enclose transects in the same category: CA: control-oldfield transects; QA: burned-oldfield; QM: burned-managed, and CM: control-managed (species’ names use the two first letters of the genus, followed by the two first letters of the specific epithet, and for those that are only identified until genus or family, the full name of the genus and family appears in Appendix B). Eigenvalues for axis I: 0.73, eigenvalue for axis II: 0.33, the cumulative percentage of total inertia for axes I and II: 18.1%.
Figure 4.
Detrended correspondence analysis axes I and II. Species coordinates and transects coordinates. Polygons enclose transects in the same category: CA: control-oldfield transects; QA: burned-oldfield; QM: burned-managed, and CM: control-managed (species’ names use the two first letters of the genus, followed by the two first letters of the specific epithet, and for those that are only identified until genus or family, the full name of the genus and family appears in Appendix B). Eigenvalues for axis I: 0.73, eigenvalue for axis II: 0.33, the cumulative percentage of total inertia for axes I and II: 18.1%.
Table 1.
Environmental characteristics of the transects selected.
| Transect | Category | Management | Coordinates | Slope (°Sex) | Aspect (Degrees) | Altitude (m a.s.l.) | Canopy Cover (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| P1CA | Control | Oldfield | 28°21′55.5″ N; 16°31′26.0″ W | 2 | 247 | 890 | 80 |
| P1QA | Burned | Oldfield | 28°24′13.1″ N; 16°28′42.9″ W | 10 | 238 | 986 | 71.8 |
| P2CA | Control | Oldfield | 28°21′56.6″ N; 16°31′13.9″ W | 3 | 60 | 899 | 85 |
| P2QA | Burned | Oldfield | 28°24′13.1″ N; 16°28′43.5″ W | 10 | 216 | 974 | 76.8 |
| P3CA | Control | Oldfield | 28°21′54.8″ N; 16°30′39.5″ W | 27 | 280 | 961 | 65 |
| P3QA | Burned | Oldfield | 28°24′08.3″ N; 16°29′01.4″ W | 0 | 13 | 909 | 55 |
| P1CE | Control | Managed | 28°25′55.6″ N; 16°26′19.7″ W | 2 | 35 | 905 | 70 |
| P1QE | Burned | Managed | 28°25′54.4″ N; 16°26′12.6″ W | 2 | 342 | 967 | 23 |
| P2CE | Control | Managed | 28°25′56.7″ N; 16°26′21.5″ W | 2 | 290 | 886 | 94 |
| P2QE | Burned | Managed | 28°25′53.9″ N; 16°26′18.3″ W | 1 | 180 | 922 | 62.8 |
| P3CE | Control | Managed | 28°25′57.9″ N; 16°26′23.1″ W | 3 | 192 | 870 | 82 |
| P3QE | Burned | Managed | 28°25′54.2″ N; 16°26′17.7″ W | 1 | 183 | 928 | 65.6 |
Table 2.
Basal area/ha (B.A.) and density/ha (Dens.) for the species in the studied transects. (*) Richness.
Table 2.
Basal area/ha (B.A.) and density/ha (Dens.) for the species in the studied transects. (*) Richness.
| Castanea sativa | Erica arborea | Ilex canariensis | Morella faya | Sonchus canariensis | Viburnum tinus | Total | Rich * | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B.A. | Dens. | B.A. | Dens. | B.A. | Dens. | B.A. | Dens. | B.A. | Dens. | B.A. | Dens. | B.A. | Dens. | ||
| P1CA | 16.29 | 160 | 115.81 | 1160 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 218.96 | 1320 | 2 |
| P1QA | 121.30 | 360 | 25.45 | 280 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.08 | 80 | 266.95 | 720 | 3 |
| P2CA | 88.67 | 280 | 580.88 | 2040 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1123.45 | 2320 | 2 |
| P2QA | 1862.65 | 1600 | 2.64 | 160 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.08 | 40 | 2030.78 | 1800 | 3 |
| P3CA | 275.25 | 840 | 1231.11 | 3440 | 1.39 | 80 | - | - | 0.08 | 40 | - | - | 2823.36 | 4400 | 4 |
| P3QA | 322.71 | 280 | - | - | - | - | 0.62 | 40 | - | - | - | - | 351.51 | 340 | 2 |
| P1CE | 95.11 | 120 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 95.11 | 120 | 1 |
| P1QE | 399.27 | 640 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 399.27 | 640 | 1 |
| P2CE | 248.95 | 160 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 248.95 | 160 | 1 |
| P2QE | 535.86 | 560 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 535.86 | 560 | 1 |
| P3CE | 448.88 | 200 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 448.88 | 200 | 1 |
| P3QE | 606.83 | 760 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 606.83 | 760 | 1 |
Table 3.
Density of basal sprouts for the species in the studied transects.
| Castanea sativa | Erica arborea | Ilex canariensis | Morella faya | Sonchus canariensis | Viburnum rugosum | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| P1CA | 336 | 552 | - | - | - | - | 888 |
| P1QA | 248 | 8 | - | - | - | 120 | 376 |
| P2CA | 296 | 472 | - | - | - | - | 768 |
| P2QA | 8 | - | - | - | - | - | 8 |
| P3CA | 384 | 1408 | - | - | - | - | 1792 |
| P3QA | 1104 | - | - | 96 | - | - | 1200 |
| P1CE | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| P1QE | 1440 | - | - | - | - | - | 1440 |
| P2CE | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| P2QE | 584 | - | - | - | - | - | 584 |
| P3CE | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| P3QE | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
MDPI and ACS Style
González-Montelongo, C.; Hernández, J.Z.; Ríos, D.; Velázquez-Barrera, M.E.; Arévalo, J.R. Fire Impact on Diversity and Forest Structure of Castanea sativa Mill. Stands in Managed and Oldfield Areas of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain). Forests 2025, 16, 1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071062
AMA Style
González-Montelongo C, Hernández JZ, Ríos D, Velázquez-Barrera ME, Arévalo JR. Fire Impact on Diversity and Forest Structure of Castanea sativa Mill. Stands in Managed and Oldfield Areas of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain). Forests. 2025; 16(7):1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071062
Chicago/Turabian StyleGonzález-Montelongo, Cristina, José Zoilo Hernández, Domingo Ríos, María Encarnación Velázquez-Barrera, and José Ramón Arévalo. 2025. "Fire Impact on Diversity and Forest Structure of Castanea sativa Mill. Stands in Managed and Oldfield Areas of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain)" Forests 16, no. 7: 1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071062
APA StyleGonzález-Montelongo, C., Hernández, J. Z., Ríos, D., Velázquez-Barrera, M. E., & Arévalo, J. R. (2025). Fire Impact on Diversity and Forest Structure of Castanea sativa Mill. Stands in Managed and Oldfield Areas of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain). Forests, 16(7), 1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071062
Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.
