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Article

The Impact of the Secular Trend of the Slovak Population on the Production of Wooden Beds and Seating Furniture

by
Miloš Gejdoš
1 and
Miloš Hitka
2,*
1
Department of Forest Harvesting, Logistics and Ameliorations, Faculty of Forestry, Technical University in Zvolen, T.G. Masaryka 24, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
2
Department of Economics, Management and Business, Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T.G. Masaryka 24, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2022, 13(10), 1599; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101599
Submission received: 6 September 2022 / Revised: 19 September 2022 / Accepted: 28 September 2022 / Published: 30 September 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of New Wood Products for Forest Industry)
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Abstract

Every space used by a person should suit the anthropometric and biomechanical characteristics of the users. Poorly designed premises and types of equipment have a negative impact on human health. Furniture, as a device for daily use, can in the long term, with inadequate dimensions, significantly affect human health. In this work, we define the secular development of selected anthropometric dimensions of the Slovak population. Based on the positive development, we point out the dimensional and strength characteristics of bed and resting furniture and the dimensional and strength characteristics of seating furniture, which anthropometric dimensions influence. At the same time, we note the need to update the calculation formulas for pricing individual products, which will have an economic impact on wood furniture production. Based on the results, we can conclude that in most of the monitored characteristics of the Slovak population, such as height and bodyweight, the elbow height when sitting, palm width, hand length, length of the forearm to fingertip, buttock–knee length and knee height—sitting with shoes, affect the dimensions of the bed and seating furniture. This implies the need to update the current standards for the general Slovak population.

1. Introduction

One of the conditions supporting work productivity is the effort made to ensure that the spaces and equipment that people use are in accordance with the anthropometric and biomechanical characteristics of the users. The use of poorly designed spaces and equipment that do not take into account the anthropometric characteristics of users has a negative impact on human health [1]. From the point of view of the development of industry and technology, great emphasis is placed on achieving the maximum capacities for the use of technologies and equipment purposefully designed for users [2]. It is an important tool not only for increasing work productivity and innovation, but also for creating conditions for the development of a person’s personality [3]. When designing and assessing the spatial arrangement of workplaces, but also during the production of ergonomically correct work aids, machines, and furniture, the human being must be taken into account as the primary factor, especially his dimensions and strength abilities [4]. The design of an optimal workplace (furniture, work tools, aids, etc.) is therefore always based on measurements of the target interest group of people, which are compared with the data of the entire population living in a certain area, usually divided into men and women [5].
The anthropometric dimensions of the adult population are changing in the long term. With the development of human society and rising living standards, they generally grow. We call this trend of long-term changes in the anthropometric dimensions of the population a “secular trend.” It is mainly influenced by nutrition, morbidity, and socioeconomic status in population development [6,7,8,9]. Dynamic changes in the human population in the social and technological fields are closely correlated and have resulted in regulations in the field of designing things for daily needs and consumption [10,11]. These include furniture that users come into contact with on a daily basis, such as beds, sofas, chairs, tables, etc. Other such items are clothes, shoes, tools, and instruments. Last but not least, the secular trend needs to be taken into account in the industrial area when designing cars and seats in transport, when designing the carrying capacities of lifting equipment, and in other areas of industry due to economic sustainability [12].
Wood, as a traditional natural material, has a long service life; excellent thermal and sound insulation properties; with proper processing and care, perfect dimensional stability; and high strength. It is easy to maintain and does not emit toxic substances. Since each tree has its own color, design, and scent, wood is a decorative, aesthetically pleasing, and impressive material. With careful preparation before use, it is possible to ensure its stability from the point of view of drying [13]. The quality of raw wood and the possibilities of its use are evaluated mainly through the occurrence and extent of negative qualitative features. The extent of these features can be influenced by several environmental factors. The fact remains that the share of the highest quality raw wood assortments is constantly decreasing [14,15]. The structural elements of wooden furniture are no less important for quality [16].
In the course of time, growth in body height and body mass changes in the population occur. For this reason, it is necessary to determine population data on selected samples at a certain point in time for various reasons (the way of nutrition the population, lifestyle, etc.) [17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. We understand the secular trend as an increase in the final state of body dimensions of successive generations compared to previous generations. It is a sign of the public health of the population and points to the relationship between economic growth and living standards [26]. It also illustrates aspects of the physiology of intergenerational relationships in growth and size. According to the authors of [24,27], research aimed at determining the anthropometric dimensions of the child and adult populations clearly shows long-term changes in body dimensions. Mostly, these are the so-called positive trends; i.e., there are increases in the values of the body parameters. The body dimension that is monitored most often and also best characterized is body height. According to [28], the secular trend in body height slowed in the second half of the 20th century, and weight continues to increase as part of the global obesity epidemic. Somatometry [29] is a method for determining the size of the population. It represents a system of techniques for measuring and observing a person and his body parts. It systematizes and precisely defines a set of relevant anthropometric features of the human body that significantly affect the performance, health, well-being, and safety of people. At the same time, it provides a number of measuring aids and procedures that enable the exact determination of the values of the observed anthropometric characteristics.
The study aims to evaluate the changes in selected anthropometric dimensions of the adult population in Slovakia affecting selected types of wooden furniture, such as beds, deckchairs, sofa beds, chairs, armchairs, and couches. To keep in mind the carbon footprint and long-term sustainability in the study, we consider all-wooden furniture.

2. Experimental Design

Furniture serves the needs of a person; that is, there are interactions between a person, his physical and psychological side, and individual furniture items. The closest relationship involves the bed and seating furniture, followed by table furniture, which interacts with humans and other useful objects. In connection with the influence of furniture on human health, Brunecký (2007) [30] states that, in addition to anthropometric, ergonomic, and physiological deficiencies, furniture in homes and the workplace contributes to fatigue, fatigue syndrome, allergies, and risks of somatic mutations, and initiates latent diseases and endangers the genetic information of a person.
The shape of the body and its proportions are directly influenced by the lengths and shapes of the bones. Industrial anthropometry, which is a part of anthropology, examines the influences of the body dimensions of population groups on work efficiency. Analyzing the dimensions of the human body helps to determine the optimal proportions between man and machine in both static and dynamic contexts.
One of the basic anthropometric methods that is suitable for solving the mentioned problems is somatometry, which represents a system of techniques for measuring and observing a person and parts of his body using the most accurate means and methods for scientific purposes. Somatometry systematizes and precisely defines a set of relevant anthropometric features of the human body which significantly affect the performance and safety of workers, and at the same time provides a series of measuring aids and procedures that enable the exact determination of the values of the monitored anthropometric features. The most used special anthropometric aids and tools include, for example, personal scales, an anthropometer, a tarakometer, a pelvimeter, a cephalometer, a tape measure, a protractor, calipers, and a spirometer. We carried out the measurements based on the principles of anthropometric measurements. Anthropometric examinations were performed individually, on the right side of the body, in the most necessary clothing, and in the morning.
The basic issue of dimensioning furniture items is their ratios to the body dimensions of the user. In this work, we analyze selected dimensions of the population that have an impact on the functional dimensions of seating and bed furniture (according to Figure 1)—height, bodyweight, and shoulder bi-deltoid breadth (3); elbow height—sitting (4); palm width (5); hand length (6); forearm to fingertip length (7); buttock–knee length (8); knee height—sitting with shoes (9). Empirical measurements aimed at defining the development of secular changes in selected anthropometric characteristics of the adult population of Slovakia aged 18–25 were carried out in the years 1993–2021 on a sample consisting of 7365 men and 7188 women—students of Slovak universities. Measurements were performed by a certified anthropometer. For the measurements of elbow height—sitting, forearm–fingertip length, buttock–knee length, palm width, hand length, and knee height—sitting with shoes, the population sample was somewhat low, as these dimensions were gradually added to the measurements, so their analysis applies only to the later years. The detailed structure of the population sample for individual anthropometric dimensions is shown in Table 1.
To characterize the development of the trends in the population, basic quantities of descriptive statistics and percentiles at level 1 were used: 5; 50; 95, and 99%. The percentile (this term was first used by Galton, 1885 [31]) of a distribution of values is a number xp such that a percentage p of the population’s values are less than or equal to xp. Arithmetic averages of measured dimensions in specific years with 95% confidence intervals were used to graphically display the development of the trend. A basic linear statistical trend was used. Standard statistical parameters were evaluated: arithmetic means, standard deviation, and percentiles. Statistical data were evaluated and values were calculated using standard procedures mentioned in the literature [32,33,34].
The software Microsoft Excel (version 2013, Microsoft Corporation, Santa Rosa, CA, USA) and STATISTICA 12.0 (version 12.0, StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA) were used for calculating and visualizing the results.
Due to the differences in the dimensions of the male and female populations, it is difficult to determine the universal dimensions of furniture. Individual furniture production can be used for an unlimited number of types of human figures. An object made to order for a specific user must meet all his requirements, unlike mass production, where furniture is designed for an anonymous user belonging to a certain subgroup of individuals. During production, it is necessary to limit yourself to a certain set of character types. They must be based on knowledge of the statistical properties of the body dimensions of the expected users [35].

3. Results

Empirical measurements aimed at defining the development of secular changes in selected anthropometric characteristics of the adult population of Slovakia aged 18–25 were carried out in the years 1993–2021 on a sample consisting of 7365 men and 7188 women—students of Slovak universities. University students aged 18–25 were selected as a sample because students from all over the country study at the university, thus ensuring diversity and a representative sample of the entire population.
The ages 18–25 were chosen purposefully because at this age the anthropometric growth of a person is already finished.
The sample from the whole period (1993–2021) of 14,537 (Table 1) respondents attending Slovak universities naturally captures the populations of various regions of Slovakia, which increases its representativeness. Most anthropometric data are expressed in percentiles. A percentile indicates the percentage of people within the population (population sample) who have body dimensions of a certain size (or smaller). The furniture industry uses the 5th or 95th percentile to serve the largest population. The decision about which percentile to use in a particular case depends on the ergonomic criterion being assessed. As part of the results, the values of the arithmetic means of the individual observed anthropometric data were calculated, as well as the standard deviations and percentiles.
We present the development of secular changes in anthropometric dimensions through linear regression equations. We are investigating the relationship between two variables. We assume that variable x (years) depends on variable y (anthropometric feature) that affects it.
Based on the results (Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10), we can conclude that there is a secular trend in most of the monitored characteristics of the Slovak population affecting the dimensions of the bed and seating furniture. This implies the need to update the current standards for the general Slovak population.
The height and weight of the population have a major influence on the dimensional and strength characteristics of bed and rest furniture. Population height growth (Figure 2) affects the length of the bed surface, shoulder bi-deltoid breadth (Figure 3) affects the width of the bed surface, and the height of the popliteal fossa affects the bed height. The weight of the population affects the strength characteristics of the elements and joints of bed and rest furniture. In this context, it is also necessary to take into account the bodyweight of the bariatric population (Figure 4).
The height and weight of the population also affect the dimensional and strength characteristics of seating furniture. Other factors that affect the elements of seating furniture are the elbow height in sitting position (flexing the elbow) (Figure 5), which ensures comfort when leaning the elbow on the armrest of the chair. Next are the palm width, the hand length (Figure 6 and Figure 7), and the forearm–fingertip length (Figure 8), which affect gripping the armrest. The buttock–knee length has a fundamental influence on the comfort of sitting (Figure 9). The height of the seat surface is influenced by the knee height (when sitting) and the resulting standing up (Figure 10).
The average height of men (Figure 2) showed a slightly rising trend over the entire period. The average height of women showed rather a stagnation of the trend in the last 10 years, although in the last 3 years there was an obvious increase in this body parameter. The average shoulder bi-deltoid breadth (Figure 3) had a slightly decreasing trend, especially for men, which is mainly related to the rising standard of living, the decreasing share of physical work, the smaller population playing sports, and a comfortable way of life.
Bodyweight, elbow height—sitting, and palm width also showed upward trends in both populations (Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6). There was a very slightly decreasing or stagnant trend for the body dimensions of hand length, forearm–fingertip length, and buttock–knee length (Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9). The dimension of knee height—sitting with shoes (Figure 10), showed a significantly increasing trend, though this result was significantly influenced by the lowest number of measurements of the analysis, since it was measured only from 2016.

4. Discussion

Over time, population growth and mass changes occur. Secular trends have been documented in many countries of the world since the 19th century [36,37,38]. These changes must be taken into account when sizing various products of daily consumption (furniture, clothes, shoes, etc.). The manufacturer’s efforts to optimize and rationally standardize products must therefore be based on knowledge of current statistical properties of users’ body dimensions.
Economic growth causes the intensification of market globalization, and together with a higher standard of living, significantly affects people’s diet and overall lifestyle. It had caused a significant increase in the bodyweight of the population all over the world [39]. Other studies over the past decade indicate that body height and weight continue to increase [40,41]. A very rapid increase in bodyweight is occurring, especially among young adults [42]. Changes in the dimensions and size of the body are the results of changes in the surrounding environment—increasing the quality of life, better health care, wider options in eating, and sedentary employment [39]. However, the secular growth trend is slowing down in many countries. On the other hand, weight gain is beginning to accelerate. Weight is growing more significantly than body height, especially in men. Jirkovský (2003) [27] devoted himself to the anthropometric measurements of men aged 18–25 in the Czech Republic in the second half of the 20th century. The results of the research are comparable to the results of Kovářík (2011) [43] in the area of the expected slowdown of the secular trend of the body height of the population. Jirkovský (2003) [27] states that since the second half of the 80s, growth acceleration has gradually slowed down, and body weight has increased. This means that the significant secular trend that took place after World War II slowed down at the end of the last century. Despite this, there have been slight increases in the body height and weight of the male population in the Czech Republic.
Reactions to secular trends in human body height are visible primarily in industries where consumption, as the main economic factor, has a decisive influence [44,45]. These are the automotive, aviation, furniture, clothing, and footwear industries. These changes must be taken into account when sizing various products of daily consumption (furniture, clothes, shoes, etc.). Furniture of all kinds, i.e., beds, seats, closets, multi-purpose furniture, and tables, must be designed in direct relation to the dimensions and weight of the current and future population. Anthropological and ergonomic requirements are decisive in many ways in connection with the shape and dimensions, i.e., the quality of the furniture and materials used. The manufacturer’s efforts to optimize and rationally standardize products must therefore be based on knowledge of current statistical properties of users’ body dimensions. One such product for which it is necessary to take into account the anthropometric parameters of the users, is the chair. Anthropometry plays a decisive role in defining the dimensions of chairs and their structural parts. Based on our results, we can state the need to update the current dimensions of the bed and seating furniture to be suitable for the 95th percentile of the adult population of Slovakia.
When providing furniture for work needs, as well as daily living, we have to think about the generations that will come after us. Furniture of all kinds, i.e., beds, seats, closets, tables, etc., must be sized in direct relation to the dimensions and weight of the current and future population. In connection with the increase in the dimensions of the bed and seating furniture, it is also necessary to take into account the need for changes in secondary items, such as sheets, mattresses, quilts, and other accessories.
Since 1980, a number of scientific works have been devoted to calculations and experimental testing of furniture structures [46,47]. A large part of this research focused on experimental testing. Further research subsequently focused on computational methods, or methods using software tools. A large chunk of that is devoted to the calculations of chairs and beds. Some authors focus on the joints of parts, as the most critical places [48,49]. In order for a chair to provide sufficient support, its height should be slightly less than the length of the human leg measured from the heel to the knee. The ideal formula is given by the so-called popliteal height, which is equal to the length of the back of the thigh plus the heel. The usual dimensions of the chairs are averaged, so smaller people should take into account that they need a lower seat to avoid unwanted compression of blood vessels. Based on a study of the literature, it was shown that the most common method for calculating the stress and deformation of wooden chairs is the finite element method [50,51,52], which can be used to determine or estimate the bearing capacity the individual dimensions of the joints, as well as the places with critical tension, where damage can occur first. Another method is the method of finite volumes [53,54]. The studies of the mentioned authors point to very good agreement between the calculated results and the experimentally measured data. A wooden bed and a wooden chair, as basic items of home furnishings, are subject to high demands [55]. Their size and stiffness must correspond to the human body and changes in position during sleep or sitting. From an anthropometric point of view, the length, width, and height of beds, and the height, depth, and width of chairs, are important. As body height and weight have increased in recent years, and the number of overweight and obese people has increased [25,56], there is a need to design beds and chairs for people with high body mass indexes (BMIs). When calculating the dimensions of the mentioned furniture, we took into account the forecasts for the relevant anthropometric dimensions of the population, i.e., the secular trend. By adding standard deviations, we created a so-called universal design. This approach ensures the suitability of the dimensional furniture solutions for today and future generations. When determining the dimensions, we used mathematical relationships taking into account the development of the anthropometric dimensions of the population in the future. The starting and determining dimension can be considered the body height of men, due to the difference in height between the sexes (men are on average taller than women).

5. Conclusions

Anthropological and ergonomic requirements are decisive in many ways in connection with the shapes and dimensions of consumer products. On the basis of our research, it can be clearly stated that in the last two decades there has been a positive secular trend in Slovakia. This situation occurred as a result of better nutrition and better socio-economic conditions, in which today’s population grew up. This trend will continue to a lesser extent. At the same time, it is necessary to state that the changes in the dimensions of the bed, resting furniture, and seating furniture will also have an economic impact on the production of furniture. From an economic point of view, the mentioned changes could involve up to 50% of the current costs [57]. In this context, it is also necessary to subsequently update the calculation formulas for the pricing of individual products. In the conditions of Slovakia and the countries of Eastern Europe, the competitiveness of enterprises within the segments of the forestry and timber complex and the use of circular economy principles for wood products will also play significant roles [58,59,60].
The relationship between a person and the objects around him, expressed by the functional dimensions of the furniture, has an impact on work and personal well-being, and last but not least, on his health. These dimensions are contained in the standards, but also in various manuals. However, the basis of the standards must be valid in the country of operation. However, the modification of standard dimensions requires the interdisciplinary cooperation of designers, developers, anthropologists, ergonomists, and health professionals.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.G.; methodology, M.G. and M.H.; software, M.G.; validation, M.G. and M.H.; formal analysis, M.G.; data curation, M.H.; writing—original draft preparation, M.G.; writing—review and editing, M.G. and M.H.; funding acquisition, M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Slovak Research and Development Agency (grant number APVV-20-0004: The effect of an increase in the anthropometric measurements of the Slovak population on the functional properties of furniture and the business processes); Operational Programme Integrated Infrastructure (OPII) funded by the ERDF (grant numbers: ITMS: 313011T720: Progressive research of performance properties of wood-based materials and products (LignoPro); ITMS: 313011T678: Comprehensive research of mitigation and adaptation measures to diminish the negative impacts of climate changes on forest ecosystems in Slovakia (FORRES)).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Selected anthropometric dimensions important for wood furniture. Explanation of dimensions: shoulder bi-deltoid breadth (3); elbow height—sitting (4); palm width (5); hand length (6); forearm to fingertip length (7); buttock–knee length (8); knee height—sitting with shoes (9).
Figure 1. Selected anthropometric dimensions important for wood furniture. Explanation of dimensions: shoulder bi-deltoid breadth (3); elbow height—sitting (4); palm width (5); hand length (6); forearm to fingertip length (7); buttock–knee length (8); knee height—sitting with shoes (9).
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Figure 2. Development of average male and female height in 1993–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 2. Development of average male and female height in 1993–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 3. Development of average male and female shoulder bi-deltioid breadth in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 3. Development of average male and female shoulder bi-deltioid breadth in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 4. Development of average male and female bodyweight in 1993–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 4. Development of average male and female bodyweight in 1993–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 5. Development of average male and female elbow height, sitting, in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 5. Development of average male and female elbow height, sitting, in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 6. Development of average male and female palm width in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 6. Development of average male and female palm width in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 7. Development of average male and female hand length in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 7. Development of average male and female hand length in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 8. Development of average male and female forearm–fingertip length in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 8. Development of average male and female forearm–fingertip length in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 9. Development of average male and female buttock–knee length in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 9. Development of average male and female buttock–knee length in 1999–2021 in Slovakia.
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Figure 10. Development of average male and female knee height in 2016–2021 in Slovakia.
Figure 10. Development of average male and female knee height in 2016–2021 in Slovakia.
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the sample.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the sample.
Anthropometric FeatureArithmetic MeanN-SampleNumber of MenNumber of WomenStandard DeviationPercentiles (%)
15509599
Bodyweight (kg)732514,537735571821557465172100115
Height (cm)17,17514,54973527197995152157171188194
Shoulder bi-deltoid breadth (cm)45478626476638606363537455662
Elbow height—sitting (cm)36933725209516306142631364371
Palm width (cm)46133628205415745543040465463
Hand length (cm)57083756210916476313946586569
Forearm–fingertip length (cm)1043372320971626153978101315
Buttock–knee length (cm)18523715209116241771516192123
Knee height—sitting with shoes (cm)455215869856015283036465458
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Gejdoš, M.; Hitka, M. The Impact of the Secular Trend of the Slovak Population on the Production of Wooden Beds and Seating Furniture. Forests 2022, 13, 1599. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101599

AMA Style

Gejdoš M, Hitka M. The Impact of the Secular Trend of the Slovak Population on the Production of Wooden Beds and Seating Furniture. Forests. 2022; 13(10):1599. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101599

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Gejdoš, Miloš, and Miloš Hitka. 2022. "The Impact of the Secular Trend of the Slovak Population on the Production of Wooden Beds and Seating Furniture" Forests 13, no. 10: 1599. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101599

APA Style

Gejdoš, M., & Hitka, M. (2022). The Impact of the Secular Trend of the Slovak Population on the Production of Wooden Beds and Seating Furniture. Forests, 13(10), 1599. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101599

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