Profiled Wet Spinning of Polyurethane Composites for Soft Dry Electrodes in Transcutaneous Stimulation Applications

Shokurov, Alexander V.; Tee, Ee Qing; Vogel, Abigail; Gmünder, Gabriel; Röllin, Kai; Lambercy, Olivier; Donegan, Dane; Viskaitis, Paulius; Menon, Carlo

doi:10.3390/ma19030557

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Open AccessArticle

Profiled Wet Spinning of Polyurethane Composites for Soft Dry Electrodes in Transcutaneous Stimulation Applications

by

Alexander V. Shokurov

^1,*,†

,

Ee Qing Tee

^2,†

,

Abigail Vogel

²

,

Gabriel Gmünder

²,

Kai Röllin

²,

Olivier Lambercy

²

,

Dane Donegan

²

,

Paulius Viskaitis

^2,*

and

Carlo Menon

^1,*

¹

Biomedical and Mobile Health Technology Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Lengghalde 5, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland

²

Rehabilitation Engineering Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Gloriastrasse 37/39, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland

^*

Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.

^†

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Materials 2026, 19(3), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19030557

Submission received: 18 November 2025 / Revised: 20 January 2026 / Accepted: 28 January 2026 / Published: 30 January 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Generation Materials for Advanced Electronic and Biomedical Applications)

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Abstract

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation techniques (TENS) are rapidly gaining attention for their potential in various clinical applications. One such technique is transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS), and it involves delivering nerve stimulation through the skin of the external ear. However, taVNS relies on electrodes that must conform to the complex anatomy of the ear while maintaining stable electrical performance. Conventional taVNS electrodes, typically rigid metal or adhesive pads, are uncomfortable, difficult to position, prone to drying, and costly to produce. Here, we present and evaluate two complementary fabrication approaches for soft dry electrodes suitable for taVNS, which are compliant with curved anatomical features and can be operated without gel. The first employs wet spinning of a conductive elastomer into fibers, while the second extends this method to create hollow cylindrical geometries. The resulting spongy polymer composite electrodes exhibit tunable geometry, high conductivity, mechanical resilience under strain and compression, and low material impedance confirmed through bench and human testing, even under dry conditions. These properties are critical for in-ear and broader transcutaneous stimulation applications, highlighting the potential of these fabrication methods for next-generation soft bioelectronic interfaces.

Keywords: wet spinning; polyurethane; composite; piezoresistive; conductive composite; transcutaneous stimulation; dry electrodes

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MDPI and ACS Style

Shokurov, A.V.; Tee, E.Q.; Vogel, A.; Gmünder, G.; Röllin, K.; Lambercy, O.; Donegan, D.; Viskaitis, P.; Menon, C. Profiled Wet Spinning of Polyurethane Composites for Soft Dry Electrodes in Transcutaneous Stimulation Applications. Materials 2026, 19, 557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19030557

AMA Style

Shokurov AV, Tee EQ, Vogel A, Gmünder G, Röllin K, Lambercy O, Donegan D, Viskaitis P, Menon C. Profiled Wet Spinning of Polyurethane Composites for Soft Dry Electrodes in Transcutaneous Stimulation Applications. Materials. 2026; 19(3):557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19030557

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shokurov, Alexander V., Ee Qing Tee, Abigail Vogel, Gabriel Gmünder, Kai Röllin, Olivier Lambercy, Dane Donegan, Paulius Viskaitis, and Carlo Menon. 2026. "Profiled Wet Spinning of Polyurethane Composites for Soft Dry Electrodes in Transcutaneous Stimulation Applications" Materials 19, no. 3: 557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19030557

APA Style

Shokurov, A. V., Tee, E. Q., Vogel, A., Gmünder, G., Röllin, K., Lambercy, O., Donegan, D., Viskaitis, P., & Menon, C. (2026). Profiled Wet Spinning of Polyurethane Composites for Soft Dry Electrodes in Transcutaneous Stimulation Applications. Materials, 19(3), 557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19030557

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Profiled Wet Spinning of Polyurethane Composites for Soft Dry Electrodes in Transcutaneous Stimulation Applications

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