Design and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Interpenetrating Polymer Networks for Biomedical Use: Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Evaluation

Grosso, Roberto; Díaz-Carrasco, Fátima; Vidal-Nogales, Elena; de-Paz, M.-Violante; Díaz-Blanco, M.-Jesús; Benito, Elena

doi:10.3390/ma19020289

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Design and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Interpenetrating Polymer Networks for Biomedical Use: Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Evaluation

by

Roberto Grosso

¹

,

Fátima Díaz-Carrasco

¹

,

Elena Vidal-Nogales

¹

,

M.-Violante de-Paz

^1,*

,

M.-Jesús Díaz-Blanco

^2,3

and

Elena Benito

¹

Departamento de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Prof. García González, 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain

²

Department of Chemical Engineering, Physical Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Huelva, Campus “El Carmen”, 21071 Huelva, Spain

³

Pro2TecS–Product Technology and Chemical Processes Research Centre, University of Huelva, Campus “El Carmen”, 21071 Huelva, Spain

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Materials 2026, 19(2), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19020289

Submission received: 1 December 2025 / Revised: 28 December 2025 / Accepted: 6 January 2026 / Published: 10 January 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Hydrogel for Biomedical Applications: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities)

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Abstract

Tissue engineering is a multidisciplinary field that aims to address tissue and organ failure by integrating scientific, engineering, and medial expertise. Gelatin is valued in this field for its biocompatibility; however, it faces thermal and mechanical weaknesses that limit its biomedical utility. This work proposes a strategy for improving gelatin properties by fabricating semi-interpenetrating polymer networks via in situ Diels–Alder crosslinking within gelatin colloidal solutions. Ten systems with variable polymer concentrations (2–4%) and crosslinking degrees (2–5%) were prepared and characterized. Rheological analysis revealed that elastic modulus, zero-shear viscosity, and complex viscosity were substantially enhanced, being especially dependent on the crosslinking degree, while critical strain values mostly depended on gelatin concentration. The incorporation of a synthetic Diels–Alder-crosslinked network also improved the thermal stability of gelatin hydrogels, particularly at physiological temperatures. Additionally, these systems exhibit favorable buoyancy, swelling and biodegradation profiles. Collectively, the resultant hydrogels are cytocompatible, solid-like, and mechanically robust, allowing for further tunability of their properties for specific biomedical uses, such as injectable matrices, load-bearing scaffolds for tissue repair, and 3D bioinks.

Keywords: interpenetrating polymer network; gelatin; Diels–Alder; biopolymer; tissue engineering; hydrogel

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MDPI and ACS Style

Grosso, R.; Díaz-Carrasco, F.; Vidal-Nogales, E.; de-Paz, M.-V.; Díaz-Blanco, M.-J.; Benito, E. Design and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Interpenetrating Polymer Networks for Biomedical Use: Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Evaluation. Materials 2026, 19, 289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19020289

AMA Style

Grosso R, Díaz-Carrasco F, Vidal-Nogales E, de-Paz M-V, Díaz-Blanco M-J, Benito E. Design and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Interpenetrating Polymer Networks for Biomedical Use: Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Evaluation. Materials. 2026; 19(2):289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19020289

Chicago/Turabian Style

Grosso, Roberto, Fátima Díaz-Carrasco, Elena Vidal-Nogales, M.-Violante de-Paz, M.-Jesús Díaz-Blanco, and Elena Benito. 2026. "Design and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Interpenetrating Polymer Networks for Biomedical Use: Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Evaluation" Materials 19, no. 2: 289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19020289

APA Style

Grosso, R., Díaz-Carrasco, F., Vidal-Nogales, E., de-Paz, M.-V., Díaz-Blanco, M.-J., & Benito, E. (2026). Design and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Interpenetrating Polymer Networks for Biomedical Use: Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Evaluation. Materials, 19(2), 289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19020289

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Design and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Interpenetrating Polymer Networks for Biomedical Use: Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Evaluation

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