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Article

Sulfur-Doped ZnO as Cathode Interlayer for Efficient Inverted Organic Solar Cells

by
Ermioni Polydorou
1,
Georgios Manginas
2,
Georgios Chatzigiannakis
1,3,
Zoi Georgiopoulou
1,3,
Apostolis Verykios
1,
Elias Sakellis
1,3,
Maria Eleni Rizou
1,
Vassilis Psycharis
1,
Leonidas Palilis
4,
Dimitris Davazoglou
1,
Anastasia Soultati
1,* and
Maria Vasilopoulou
1,*
1
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (INN), National Center for Scientific Research (NCSR) Demokritos, 15341 Agia Paraskevi, Greece
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of West Attica, 12244 Egaleo, Greece
3
Solid State Physics Section, Department of Physics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupolis, 15784 Zografos, Greece
4
Department of Physics, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Materials 2025, 18(8), 1767; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18081767
Submission received: 14 March 2025 / Revised: 8 April 2025 / Accepted: 10 April 2025 / Published: 12 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Semiconductors for Solar Cell Devices)
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Highlights

  • A sulfur-doping of the zinc oxide electron extraction layer used in inverted organic solar cells is proposed.
  • The crystalline size, hydrophobicity, and conductivity of the sulfur-doped ZnO are affected by doping.
  • Efficient electron transport/extraction, interfacial exciton dissociation, and charge generation of sulfur-doped ZnO-based organic solar cells are suggested.
  • Enhanced performance of the sulfur-doped ZnO-based device is demonstrated.

Abstract

Bulk heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cells (OSCs) represent a promising technology due to their cost-effectiveness, lightweight design and potential for flexible manufacturing. However, achieving a high power conversion efficiency (PCE) and long-term stability necessitates optimizing the interfacial layers. Zinc oxide (ZnO), commonly used as an electron extraction layer (EEL) in inverted OSCs, suffers from surface defects that hinder device performance. Furthermore, the active control of its optoelectronic properties is highly desirable as the interfacial electron transport and extraction, exciton dissociation and non-radiative recombination are crucial for optimum solar cell operation. In this regard, this study investigates the sulfur doping of ZnO as a facile method to effectively increase ZnO conductivity, improve the interfacial electron transfer and, overall, enhance solar cell performance. ZnO films were sulfur-treated under various annealing temperatures, with the optimal condition found at 250 °C. Devices incorporating sulfur-doped ZnO (S-ZnO) exhibited a significant PCE improvement from 2.11% for the device with the pristine ZnO to 3.14% for the OSC based on the S-ZnO annealed at 250 °C, attributed to an enhanced short-circuit current density (Jsc) and fill factor (FF). Optical and structural analyses revealed that the sulfur treatment led to a small enhancement of the ZnO film crystallite size and an increased n-type transport capability. Additionally, the sulfurization of ZnO enhanced its electron extraction efficiency, exciton dissociation at the ZnO/photoactive layer interface and exciton/charge generation rate without altering the film morphology. These findings highlight the potential of sulfur doping as an easily implemented, straightforward approach to improving the performance of inverted OSCs.
Keywords: zinc oxide; sulfur doping; electron extraction layer; inverted organic solar cells zinc oxide; sulfur doping; electron extraction layer; inverted organic solar cells

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MDPI and ACS Style

Polydorou, E.; Manginas, G.; Chatzigiannakis, G.; Georgiopoulou, Z.; Verykios, A.; Sakellis, E.; Rizou, M.E.; Psycharis, V.; Palilis, L.; Davazoglou, D.; et al. Sulfur-Doped ZnO as Cathode Interlayer for Efficient Inverted Organic Solar Cells. Materials 2025, 18, 1767. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18081767

AMA Style

Polydorou E, Manginas G, Chatzigiannakis G, Georgiopoulou Z, Verykios A, Sakellis E, Rizou ME, Psycharis V, Palilis L, Davazoglou D, et al. Sulfur-Doped ZnO as Cathode Interlayer for Efficient Inverted Organic Solar Cells. Materials. 2025; 18(8):1767. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18081767

Chicago/Turabian Style

Polydorou, Ermioni, Georgios Manginas, Georgios Chatzigiannakis, Zoi Georgiopoulou, Apostolis Verykios, Elias Sakellis, Maria Eleni Rizou, Vassilis Psycharis, Leonidas Palilis, Dimitris Davazoglou, and et al. 2025. "Sulfur-Doped ZnO as Cathode Interlayer for Efficient Inverted Organic Solar Cells" Materials 18, no. 8: 1767. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18081767

APA Style

Polydorou, E., Manginas, G., Chatzigiannakis, G., Georgiopoulou, Z., Verykios, A., Sakellis, E., Rizou, M. E., Psycharis, V., Palilis, L., Davazoglou, D., Soultati, A., & Vasilopoulou, M. (2025). Sulfur-Doped ZnO as Cathode Interlayer for Efficient Inverted Organic Solar Cells. Materials, 18(8), 1767. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18081767

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