Next Article in Journal
Effect of Cryo-Rolling on the Microstructural Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
Previous Article in Journal
A Preliminary Study of the Effect of 3D Printing Orientation on Mechanical Properties and Fracture of Samples Made from AlSi10Mg
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Materials
Volume 18
Issue 23
10.3390/ma18235295
materials-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Efficient Removal of Cr(VI) from Water by Carbon-Based Composites Derived from Oil-Based Drill Cuttings

by
Yongkui Huang
1,
Linzhi Li
1,
Jiangrong Qiao
2,
Xiaochuan Wu
1,
Ye Zhang
1,
Bo Bai
1,
Liu Yang
1,
Shubiao Pan
1,
Qi Feng
1,* and
Li Liu
2,*
1
National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Shale Gas Exploration and Development, Key Laboratory of Shale Gas Exploration, Ministry of Natural Resources, Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chongqing 401120, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control, School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Materials 2025, 18(23), 5295; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235295
Submission received: 26 September 2025 / Revised: 30 October 2025 / Accepted: 20 November 2025 / Published: 24 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Composites)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Oil-based drill cuttings (OBDCs) have received extensive attention for their environmental impacts and safe disposal. In this study, a high-performance sorbent material was prepared via the chelation and carbonization reaction for the high-value resource utilization of OBDCs. The coordination interaction between the organic acids and metal ions acted as a carbon source. Then, the metal elements were encapsulated into the formed carbon matrix. The results showed that the obtained composites exhibited abundant honeycomb-like pore structures. The addition of citric acid facilitated the formation of graphitized carbon materials and increased the specific surface area and surface functional groups. Impressively, the composites exhibited excellent adsorption performance for Cr(VI), with a maximum adsorption capacity of 56.84 mg/g. The adsorption process followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, and was mainly dominated by chemical adsorption. The excellent adsorption properties were attributed to the unique properties of the prepared carbon-based composites, including their large surface area, numerous pore structures, and abundant surface functional groups. This study provides new ideas related to the resource utilization of hazardous organic waste.

1. Introduction

Shale gas, as a clean, efficient and unconventional fossil energy source, plays an important role in alleviating the pressure of energy supply and demand and achieving the strategic goals of carbon neutrality [1,2,3,4]. Long-distance horizontal drilling with extensive use of oil-based drilling fluids is one of the key technologies for improving the recovery rate of shale gas. Nevertheless, this technology inevitably generates a large amount of oil-based drill cuttings (OBDCs) [1,5,6]. These cuttings contain significant amounts of toxic substances, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and polymeric organic pollutants [3,7,8]. In addition, due to their high biological toxicity, OBDCs have poor degradability in natural environments and can be absorbed by crops and other vegetation, entering the food chain and ultimately affecting human health [2,9,10]. Therefore, the effective treatment of OBDCs remains a critical challenge for the sustainable development of the shale gas industry [3,11,12]. In recent years, various techniques have been proposed to achieve the harmless treatment of OBDCs, such as centrifugation, reinjection, landfilling, incineration, microbial treatment, and solidification technologies [11,13,14,15]. However, these methods are often plagued by low resource utilization efficiency and the inherent risk of secondary pollution [10,16,17]. To achieve successful resource utilization of oil-based drill cuttings, significant progress has been made in the development of related technologies, such as surfactant-enhanced washing, supercritical fluid extraction, and microwave pyrolysis [18,19,20,21]. These technologies can recover most of the oil phase components, but the residual solid still contains polymeric organic pollutants and heavy metals, and is still regarded as hazardous waste [22,23,24]. Therefore, the comprehensive valorization of oil-based drill cuttings has become an important research direction.
The resource utilization of oil-based drill cuttings shows a trend of expanding from low-value-added applications to high-value environmental remediation fields [25,26,27]. In recent years, researchers have focused on environmental remediation using OBDC residues, aiming to achieve the sustainable development goal of “treating waste with waste” [7,23,28]. Due to the presence of transition metals and alkali metal minerals in the residues, they have the potential to be used as adsorbents, reducing agents, and catalysts in environmental remediation [16,29,30]. For instance, OBDCs can function as a reducing agent due to their reductive sulfur and phosphorus content [4]. Yang et al. confirmed that secondary pyrolysis oil-based drill cutting ash can effectively oxidize heavy metal pollutants in water and soil by virtue of these reductive and precipitation characteristics [30]. Furthermore, OBDC contains numerous alkaline metal oxides and possesses a surface endowed with functional groups with tunable hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties, which provides an opportunity to improve their adsorption performance and selectivity for wastewater treatment. Zhao et al. and Yang et al. have demonstrated that the adsorption performance of post-pyrolysis OBDC is significantly enhanced after oxidative modification [31,32]. However, inhibiting the ecological risk of heavy metals leaching from OBDC solids remains challenging [1,33]. Therefore, it is urgent to develop effective and cost-effective synthesis strategies to convert organic pollutants and metal elements from OBDC into high-performance functional materials.
In this study, a fast and scalable approach has been developed to prepare a high-performance sorbent material by utilizing the chelation effect between organic acids and OBDCs combined with carbonization reaction for high-value resource utilization of OBDCs. The coordination interaction between the organic acids and metal ions in OBDCs can serve as ionic cross-linkers and can act as a carbon source. Then, the metal elements in oil-based cuttings are encapsulated into the formed carbon matrix to achieve solidification after a calcination process. Finally, the removal of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) was used as a model reaction to explore the adsorption performance of the obtained carbon-based composites for the remediation of heavy metal pollution. This paper provides a theoretical basis and technical references for “treating waste with waste” for high-value applications in environmental remediation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation Method

The oil-based drill cuttings were collected from the Shale Gas Field in Yuxi District, Chongqing, China. First, the oil was removed via centrifugal separation. The oil content of the resulting solid product was about 0.58%. After the product was dried at 105 °C, a grayish-brown residue was obtained and served as the precursor for the study.
The carbonization device was composed of a quartz tube and a horizontal pyrolysis furnace, with electric resistance wires as the heating element. To eliminate the impact of the solution’s acidity, sodium citrate was selected as the source of citric acid. The specific preparation steps were as follows: 5 g of the precursor and 3 g of sodium citrate were added to 20 mL of water and stirred for 2 h. After drying at 80 °C overnight, the mixture was ground uniformly. Subsequently, the obtained mixture was placed into the quartz tube of the tube furnace and calcined under a nitrogen atmosphere for a duration of 120 min. After cooling to room temperature, the obtained product was collected and washed several times with distilled water. Moreover, the effect of carbonization temperature on the structure and adsorption performance of carbon-based composites was studied. The obtained products with different carbonization temperatures (500, 600, 700, and 800 °C) were labeled as DCS 1, DCS 2, DCS 3, and DCS 4, respectively. In addition, a material obtained via the same processes without the addition of sodium citrate was used as a control and labeled as DC.

2.2. Cr(VI) Adsorption Experiment

Batch adsorption experiments were performed to verify the adsorption performance of the carbon-based composites. Typically, a Cr(VI) solution (50 mg/L) was prepared by dissolving potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7, analytical grade) in distilled water. Next, 0.05 g of the carbon-based composite sample was added to 100 mL of Cr(VI) solution. The flask was sealed with a stopper and placed in a constant-temperature shaking incubator (Shanghai bluepard instruments CO., LTD., Shanghai, China) with a shaking speed of 120 rpm for 24 h. After adsorption, the material and solution were separated using a 0.45 μm filter membrane. The Cr(VI) concentration was determined via the 1,5-diphenylcarbazide analytical method at 540 nm using a UV1102 II ultraviolet spectrophotometer(Beijing Puxi General Instrument Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) [34,35].
The adsorption kinetics experiments were conducted at 25 °C, with an adsorbent dosage of 0.5 g/L and an initial Cr(VI) concentration of 50 mg/L. The concentrations of Cr(VI) were monitored regularly throughout the process. The pseudo-first-order kinetic model and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model were used to explore the kinetic characteristics of Cr(VI) adsorption by the adsorbent.
The adsorption capacity (qt) and the kinetic parameters was calculated using the following formula:
q t = ( c 0 − c t ) × v m
q t = q e ( 1 − e − k 2 × t )
t q t = t q e + 1 k 2 × q e 2
where c0 and ct represent the initial concentration and at time t of Cr (VI) (mg/L), respectively, v is the volume of the solution (L), and m is the mass of the adsorbent (g). qe and qt represent the equilibrium adsorption capacity and the adsorption capacity at time t (mg/g). k1 and k2 is the pseudo-first-order (min−1) and the pseudo-second-order kinetic rate constant (g·mg−1·min−1).

2.3. Characterization and Analysis Methods

Elemental analysis of the samples was performed using CHNS analysis on a Unicube elemental analyzer (Elementar Trading (shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China). The crystal phase of the samples was characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD, PANalytical X’Pert, Osaka, Japan) equipped with Cu Kα radiation in the range of 6° to 60°. The surface functional groups were analyzed using a VERTEX 70 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer (Bruker Corporation, Karlsruhe, Germany) with the KBr pellet method in the range of 4000 to 400 cm−1. Raman spectra of the samples were obtained using a LabRAM HR Evolution Raman spectroscope (HORIBA, Palaiseau, France) with a 514 nm laser source. The mineral components were investigated using an X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer equipped with a Rh standard tube as the excitation source (ARL Perform’X, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The specific surface area and pore size were analyzed by N2 adsorption–desorption measurements (Micromeritics ASAP 2020, Norcross, GA, USA) at 77 K. The samples were degassed under a vacuum at 100 °C for 10 h prior to the experiments. The morphology and elemental composition were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) (JSM-7800F microscope, Tokyo, Japan) at an acceleration voltage of 15 kV. The surface elements were identified by an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS, ESCALAB250Xi, Thermo Fisher Scientific) with monochromatic Al-Kα radiation, and the binding energies were calibrated by C 1s at 284.8 eV.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Structural Characterization of Carbon-Based Composites

The XRF measurement was performed to determine the inorganic mineral composition of the synthesized materials. As illustrated in Table 1, the mineral compositions of the different carbon-based composites were largely identical. Notably, the primary constituents were identified as SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, Ba, Fe2O3, and Na2O [9,11,28]. This elemental profile is fundamentally consistent with that of the raw oil-based drill cuttings precursor, with only slight changes observed in the relative proportions of the components after the synthesis process.
Elemental analysis was performed to identify the relative content of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) within the carbon-based composites. As shown in Table 2, all the synthesized composites contained C and H. Notably, the elemental contents of C and H in DC were significantly lower than those in the carbon-based composites. This indicates that the citric acid had undergone a carbonization reaction and had been converted into structural carbon material. Furthermore, the C and H content in the samples markedly decreased with increasing carbonization temperature. Concurrently, the atomic ratio of C/H also progressively decreased with rising temperature. This was mainly attributed to the fact that organic substances and citric acid were transformed into carbon structures. These results confirm that the organic matter was effectively converted into a carbonaceous material.
The phase composition of the synthesized carbon-based composites was investigated using XRD. As shown in Figure 1, the main phase composition was consistent across the materials prepared at different temperatures, such as quartz, calcite, potassium feldspar, and barium sulfate. A relatively strong diffraction peak was observed at 2θ = 26.6°, corresponding to the characteristic peak of quartz (PDF:99-0088) [10,29,32]. Moreover, the diffraction intensity progressively increased with increasing reaction temperature, suggesting that higher temperatures promoted the growth and crystallinity of this phase. Furthermore, as the reaction temperature increased, the diffraction peak initially located at 29.3° gradually shifted to 29.6°, which may have been due to the partial decomposition of BaCO3 and CaCO3 in the residues [10,28]. No other significant changes were observed in the other crystalline phases. These results demonstrate that the carbon-based composites retained the original mineral composition of the precursor material.
Figure 2 shows the morphologies of the synthesized carbon materials. As observed in Figure 2a, DCS 3 is composed of irregularly shaped particles with sizes ranging from several hundred nanometers to approximately 15 µm. Figure 2b,c reveal that the particle surfaces possess an abundant, honeycomb-like porous architecture with many pores and grooves, which are beneficial for providing more adsorption sites and a larger specific surface area [13,17,36]. The high-resolution SEM image (Figure 2d) shows that a thin carbon layer formed on the surfaces of the materials. Additionally, the carbon layer presented a large number of irregular, pore-like structures.
The specific surface area and pore structures of the materials were further analyzed using N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms. As shown in Figure 3a, all the samples presented a type IV isotherm with an H3 hysteresis loop, indicating the presence of typical mesoporous and macroporous structures [36]. Figure 3b shows that the pore sizes of the samples were mainly distributed below 8 nm. As listed in Table 3, the average pore sizes of DCS 1, DCS 2, DCS 3, and DCS 4 were 16.44, 15.21, 18.32, and 17.31 nm, respectively, indicating that the increase in carbonization temperature promoted the carbonization of organic matter and unblocked the pore structures. In addition, the addition of citric acid may have increased the specific surface area. However, the specific surface area decreased with the increase in the carbonization temperature, which could be attributed to the transformation of the citric acid. Therefore, carbonization temperature plays a crucial role in the formation of micro/mesopores.
The surface functional groups of the samples were analyzed by FT-IR [37]. As shown in Figure 4, the peak at 3450 cm−1 was attributed to the stretching vibration of –OH, and the peak at ~2850 cm−1 corresponded to the stretching vibration of C–H. The peak at 1632 cm−1 was assigned to the stretching vibration of C=C in pyridine structures, and the characteristic peak near 1443 cm−1 could be attributed to the vibrational absorption of aromatic skeletons [38]. Furthermore, the characteristic peak near 1443 cm−1 became very weak with the increase in the reaction temperature, while the peak at 1632 cm−1 became stronger, indicating that the aromatic skeleton had begun to transform into graphite layers or carbon black structures. The characteristic peak near 1100 cm−1 was attributed to the vibration of Si−O, and the peak between 780 and 790 cm−1 corresponded to the symmetric vibration of Si−O−Si, indicating the presence of silicates [30,39]. Therefore, the surface of the obtained composites was found to be decorated with various functional groups, which are beneficial to the adsorption performance.
Figure 5 displays the Raman spectroscopy of the obtained carbon-based composites. The obtained composites have two obvious characteristic peaks at 1323 cm−1 and 1586 cm−1, corresponding to the D band and G band of carbon materials, respectively [36,40]. The calculated ID/IG values of DCS 1, DCS 2, DCS 3, and DCS 4 are 0.91, 0.93, 0.93, and 1.06, respectively. In contrast, the ID/IG value of the DC sample is 0.83, indicating that the graphitization degree of its carbon materials is relatively low. This illustrated that a higher carbonization temperature was beneficial for improving the graphitization degree of the carbon materials. This indicates that the addition of citric acid was beneficial to the formation of graphitized carbon materials, leading to the synthesis of a higher-performance carbon material.
XPS was used to further investigate the surface structure of the obtained composites. As shown in Figure 6, all the samples contained C, O, Si, Al, Ba, and Ca elements. Notably, the atomic percentages of carbon (C) in DC, DCS 1, DCS 2, DCS 3, and DCS 4 were 35.55, 53.35, 65.2, 76.05, and 64.47. It can be concluded that a large amount of carbon materials mainly derived from the carbonization of citric acid formed on the surface of the obtained composites. Furthermore, trace amounts of Fe and Mn were detected in the DC sample. In contrast, no obvious signals were observed in the obtained composites. This can be attributed to the fact that the thick carbon layer that formed on the surface of the sample effectively encapsulated the underlying mineral elements. This is not only beneficial for improving the adsorption performance but is also conducive to the immobilization of metal elements.

3.2. Adsorption Performance

Based on the above results, the synthesized carbon-based composites feature a typical mesoporous architecture and are rich in functional groups. Therefore, the removal of Cr(VI) was used as a model reaction to explore the application potential of the obtained composites in pollutant remediation.
As clearly shown in Figure 7, the DC exhibited a poor adsorption performance for Cr(VI) with an equilibrium adsorption capacity of 24.83 mg/g, which may have been due to the low amount of formed carbon materials. As expected, a significant improvement in adsorption capacity was observed for the composites prepared with citric acid. As the carbonization temperature increased from 500 °C to 700 °C, the adsorption capacity increased from 38.79 to 56.84 mg/g. However, a further increase in carbonization temperature slightly decreased the adsorption capacity. This may have been due to the high carbonization temperature, which caused a significant loss of carbon materials. It can be concluded that the carbonization temperature has a significant impact on the adsorption performance of the formed carbon-based composites, and the carbon-based composite prepared at 700 °C exhibited the best adsorption effect.
Figure 8 shows the adsorption kinetic curves of Cr(VI) on the carbon-based composites. The adsorption performance of the carbon-based composites gradually increased with the extension of time, and an adsorption equilibrium could be reached at approximately 420 min. The adsorption performance of the carbon-based composites increased slightly with the increase in adsorption time. This may have been because the abundant porous structure of the carbon-based composites facilitates the transport and diffusion of Cr(VI) from the material’s surface to the interior. In addition, the adsorption capacity of the DCS 3 sample slightly decreased with the increase in adsorption time. This may have been due to the large potential energy difference between Cr(VI) adsorbed on the surface of DCS 3 and Cr(VI) in the solution, promoting the transfer of Cr(VI).
To further evaluate the adsorption performance of the synthesized composites, a comparison was made with other reported adsorbents. As shown in Table 4, the synthesized carbon-based composites exhibited a significantly higher adsorption performance than most of the current mainstream adsorbents. Therefore, the synthesized composites have promising application prospects in Cr(VI) wastewater treatment, serving as environmentally friendly and potentially cost-effective adsorbent materials.

3.3. Adsorption Kinetics

To reveal the adsorption behavior of the prepared carbon-based composites, pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic equations were utilized to understand the adsorption isotherms of the prepared composites [16,30,44,45]. As shown in Figure 9, the adsorption process had a relatively good correlation with the pseudo-first-order kinetic model. The correlation coefficients (R2) of DCS 1, DCS 2, DCS 3, and DCS 4 samples were 0.99, 0.98, 0.94, and 0.92, respectively. Moreover, their experimental equilibrium adsorption capacities were closer to the theoretical equilibrium adsorption capacities. In addition, the rate constant k of the DC sample was significantly higher than that of the prepared composites. This may suggest that the adsorption process of the DC sample is primarily dominated by an intraparticle diffusion mechanism [34,35]. This observation is consistent with previous studies [34,35] in which pristine biochar exhibited higher apparent rate constants due to diffusion-controlled uptake, whereas modified biochar showed adsorption behavior better fitted by the pseudo-second-order model, highlighting the dominant role of chemical interactions in pollutant removal. As shown in Figure 10a and Table 5, both the pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models adequately described the adsorption process; however, the pseudo-second-order model yielded a more reliable prediction of the equilibrium adsorption capacity for most composites [46,47]. This result suggests that the adsorption of Cr(VI) by the prepared materials was predominantly governed by chemisorption [16,34,35]. The excellent adsorption properties are attributed to the unique properties of the prepared carbon-based composites, including their large surface area, numerous pore structures, and abundant surface functional groups.

4. Conclusions

In summary, novel carbon-based composites were successfully synthesized by utilizing the chelation reaction of oil-based cuttings and carbonization treatment for the removal of Cr(VI) in water. The carbon-based composites are basically consistent with the mineral composition of the raw oil-based cuttings. The composites exhibited irregular particle morphology with abundant honeycomb-like pore structures. The thin carbon layer with a large number of irregular porous structures was formed on the surface. Various functional groups were decorated on the surface of the obtained composites. The addition of citric acid is beneficial for the formation of graphitized carbon materials and can increase the specific surface area. The specific surface area decreases with the increase in the carbonization temperature. The composites exhibited excellent adsorption performance for Cr(VI), with a maximum adsorption capacity of 56.84 mg/g at a carbonization temperature of 700 °C. The adsorption process followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and was mainly dominated by chemical adsorption. The excellent adsorption properties are attributed to the unique properties of the prepared carbon-based composites, including their large surface area, numerous pore structures, and abundant surface functional groups. This work provides new ideas and approaches for the high-value valorization of oil-based drill cuttings.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Q.F. and L.L. (Li Liu); Investigation, Y.H., L.L. (Linzhi Li), L.Y., X.W. and S.P.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, J.Q. and L.L. (Linzhi Li); Writing—Review and Editing, Y.H., J.Q., Y.Z., B.B., L.Y., X.W. and S.P.; Supervision, L.L. (Li Liu), Y.H. and Q.F.; Funding Acquisition, L.L. (Li Liu), Y.Z. and B.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was financially supported by the Open Project of National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Shale Gas Exploration and Development, Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chongqing, China (YYQKTKFGJDFLHGCYJZX-201903), Key Project for Technological Innovation and Application Development (CSTB2025TIAD-KPX0024), and Special project for performance incentive and guidance on research institutions of Chongqing (cstc2021jxjl20024).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Jew, A.D.; Druhan, J.L.; Ihme, M.; Kovscek, A.R.; Battiato, I.; Kaszuba, J.P.; Bargar, J.R.; Brown, G.E. Chemical and Reactive Transport Processes Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing of Unconventional Oil/Gas Shales. Chem. Rev. 2022, 122, 9198–9263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Feng, Q.; Chang, Z.; Xiao, Y.; Huang, Y.; El-Din, M.G.; Liu, C.; Xu, L. Self-driven microbial fuel cells-electrolytic cell coupling system for the shale gas flowback wastewater and oil-based drill sludge degradation. Energy Convers. Manag. 2025, 325, 119445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Zhang, S.; Feng, Y.; Li, B.; Deng, J.; Geng, T.; Zhang, J. Fracture development during disposal of hazardous drilling cuttings by deep underground injection: A review. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2022, 14, 1652–1670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Yang, H.; Diao, H.; Zhang, Y.; Xia, S. Treatment and novel resource-utilization methods for shale gas oil based drill cuttings—A review. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 317, 115462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Adhami, S.; Jamshidi-Zanjani, A.; Darban, A.K. Remediation of oil-based drilling waste using the electrokinetic-Fenton method. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2021, 149, 432–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Khodadadi, M.; Moradi, L.; Dabir, B.; Moghadas Nejad, F.; Khodaii, A. Reuse of drill cuttings in hot mix asphalt mixture: A study on the environmental and structure performance. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 256, 119453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Ravindiran, G.; Rajamanickam, S.; Janardhan, G.; Hayder, G.; Alagumalai, A.; Mahian, O.; Lam, S.S.; Sonne, C. Production and modifications of biochar to engineered materials and its application for environmental sustainability: A review. Biochar 2024, 6, 62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Alves, G.M.; Petri, I. Microwave remediation of oil-contaminated drill cuttings—A review. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2021, 207, 109137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Araka, P.P.; Okparanma, R.N.; Ayotamuno, J.M. Diagnostic screening of organic contaminant level in solidified/stabilized pre-treated oil-based drill cuttings. Heliyon 2019, 5, e02644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Xia, Z.; Yang, H.; Sun, J.; Zhou, Z.; Wang, J.; Zhang, Y. Co-pyrolysis of waste polyvinyl chloride and oil-based drilling cuttings: Pyrolysis process and product characteristics analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 318, 128521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Zhang, G.; Zhao, F.; Cheng, X.; Huang, S.; Zhang, C.; Zhou, M.; Mei, K.; Zhang, L. Resource utilization from solid waste originated from oil-based shale drilling cutting during shale gas development. Chemosphere 2022, 298, 134318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Ostakh, O.; Uzyakova, E.; Grechishcheva, N.; Kusheeva, V. Ecotoxicological assessment of soil-like mixtures made of drill cuttings. J. Eng. Des. Technol. 2021, 19, 1433–1450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Alavi, N.; Daneshpajou, M.; Shirmardi, M.; Goudarzi, G.; Neisi, A.; Babaei, A.A. Investigating the efficiency of co-composting and vermicomposting of vinasse with the mixture of cow manure wastes, bagasse, and natural zeolite. Waste Manag. 2017, 69, 117–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Hu, G.; Liu, H.; Chen, C.; Hou, H.; Li, J.; Hewage, K.; Sadiq, R. Low-temperature thermal desorption and secure landfill for oil-based drill cuttings management: Pollution control, human health risk, and probabilistic cost assessment. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 410, 124570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Kogbara, R.B. A review of the mechanical and leaching performance of stabilized/solidified contaminated soils. Environ. Rev. 2014, 22, 66–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Liuyang, X.; Yang, H.; Huang, S.; Zhang, Y.; Xia, S. Resource utilization of secondary pyrolysis oil-based drilling cuttings ash for removing Cr (VI) contaminants: Adsorption properties, kinetics and mechanism. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 104474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Chen, Z.; Chen, Z.; Yin, F.; Wang, G.; Chen, H.; He, C.; Xu, Y. Supercritical water oxidation of oil-based drill cuttings. J. Hazard. Mater. 2017, 332, 205–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Chen, Z.; Zheng, Z.; Li, D.; Chen, H.; Xu, Y. Continuous supercritical water oxidation treatment of oil-based drill cuttings using municipal sewage sludge as diluent. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 384, 121225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Lv, Q.; Wang, L.a.; Jiang, J.; Ma, S.; Liu, L.; Zhou, Z.; Liu, L.; Wang, X.; Bai, J. Catalytic pyrolysis of oil-based drill cuttings over metal oxides: The product properties and environmental risk assessment of heavy metals in char. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2022, 159, 354–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Santos, J.M.; Petri, I.J.; Mota, A.C.S.; Morais, A.d.S.; Ataíde, C.H. Optimization of the batch decontamination process of drill cuttings by microwave heating. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2018, 163, 349–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Ye, Y.; Li, J.; Zhang, Q.; Feng, J.; Zhu, J.; Yin, D. Nanoemulsion for oil-contaminated oil-based drill cuttings removel in lab. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017, 42, 18734–18740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Hu, L.; Yu, H.; Yan, X.; Sun, Y.; Zhu, B. Analysis of molten slag from high-temperature plasma treatment of oil-based drill cuttings. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2023, 172, 97–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Onwosi, C.O.; Odibo, F.J.C.; Enebechi, C.K.; Nwankwegu, A.S.; Ikele, A.I.; Okeh, O.C. Bioremediation of Diesel-contaminated Soil by Composting with Locally Generated Bulking Agents. Soil Sediment Contam. Int. J. 2017, 26, 438–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Liu, P.; Zhan, Y.; Quan, K.; Li, K.; Jia, Y. The Damage Characteristics of Oil-Based Drilling Cuttings Coke Based on Ultrasonic Vibration. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 2024, 57, 4925–4934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Khankhaje, E.; Rafieizonooz, M.; Salim, M.R.; Khan, R.; Mirza, J.; Siong, H.C.; Salmiati. Sustainable clean pervious concrete pavement production incorporating palm oil fuel ash as cement replacement. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 172, 1476–1485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Wiemes, L.; Pawlowsky, U.; Mymrin, V. Incorporation of industrial wastes as raw materials in brick’s formulation. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 142, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Kovaleva, E.I.; Guchok, M.V.; Terekhova, V.A.; Demin, V.V.; Trofimov, S.Y. Drill cuttings in the environment: Possible ways to improve their properties. J. Soils Sediments 2021, 21, 1974–1988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Wienchol, P.; Szlęk, A.; Ditaranto, M. Waste-to-energy technology integrated with carbon capture—Challenges and opportunities. Energy 2020, 198, 117352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Xie, B.; Qin, J.; Sun, H.; Wang, S.; Li, X. Release characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) leaching from oil-based drilling cuttings. Chemosphere 2022, 291, 132711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Yang, H.; Huang, S.; Zhang, Y.; Zhou, B.; Manzoor Ahmed, S.; Liu, H.; Liu, Y.; He, Y.; Xia, S. Remediation effect of Cr (VI)-contaminated soil by secondary pyrolysis oil-based drilling cuttings ash. Chem. Eng. J. 2020, 398, 125473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Zhao, Y.; Yang, H.; Sun, J.; Zhang, Y.; Xia, S. Enhanced Adsorption of Rhodamine B on Modified Oil-Based Drill Cutting Ash: Characterization, Adsorption Kinetics, and Adsorption Isotherm. ACS Omega 2021, 6, 17086–17094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Yang, H.; Liu, Y.; Bai, G.; Liao, R.; Zhang, Y.; Xia, S. Enhanced and selective adsorption of tamoxifen using sodium dodecyl sulfate modified oil-based drill cutting ash. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2021, 278, 119660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Costa, L.C.; Carvalho, C.F.; Soares, A.S.F.; Souza, A.C.P.; Bastos, E.F.T.; Guimaraes, E.; Santos, J.C.; Carvalho, T.; Calderari, V.H.; Marinho, L.S.; et al. Physical and chemical characterization of drill cuttings: A review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2023, 194, 115342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Jiang, F.; Wei, C.; Yu, Z.; Ji, L.; Liu, M.; Cao, Q.; Wu, L.; Li, F. Fabrication of Iron-Containing Biochar by One-Step Ball Milling for Cr(VI) and Tetracycline Removal from Wastewater. Langmuir 2023, 39, 18958–18970. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Zhang, J.; Zhang, W.; Yuan, F.; Yang, Z.; Lin, J.; Huang, Y.; Ding, M. Effect of Bi5O7I/calcined ZnAlBi-LDHs composites on Cr(VI) removal via adsorption and photocatalytic reduction. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2021, 562, 150129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Wu, S.; Yin, X.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, W.; Huang, Y.; Dong, F.; Zhang, D. Electrolyte Flow-Driven Coupling of Oxygen Evolution Reaction and CO2 Electroreduction for Promoting Selective HCOOH Production under Acidic Conditions. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2025, 13, 7062–7073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Huang, Y.; Yin, X.; He, P.; Kou, S.; Zhang, X.; Wang, L.; Lu, P. Peroxymonosulfate Activation by Bi2WO6/BiOCl Heterojunction Nanocomposites under Visible Light for Bisphenol A Degradation. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 3130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Brzhezinskaya, M.; Zhivulin, V.E. Controlled modification of polyvinylidene fluoride as a way for carbyne synthesis. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2022, 203, 110054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Kou, J.; Tao, D.; Xu, G. A study of adsorption of dodecylamine on quartz surface using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2010, 368, 75–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Brzhezinskaya, M.; Irzhak, A.; Irzhak, D.; Kang, T.W.; Kononenko, O.; Matveev, V.; Panin, G.; Roshchupkin, D. Direct growth of graphene film on piezoelectric La3Ga5.5Ta0.5O14 crystal. Phys. Status Solidi Rapid Res. Lett. 2016, 10, 639–644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Zhu, N.; Yan, T.; Qiao, J.; Cao, H. Adsorption of arsenic, phosphorus and chromium by bismuth impregnated biochar: Adsorption mechanism and depleted adsorbent utilization. Chemosphere 2016, 164, 32–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Kumar, A.; Jena, H.M. Adsorption of Cr(VI) from aqueous phase by high surface area activated carbon prepared by chemical activation with ZnCl2. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2017, 109, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Li, F.; Zimmerman, A.R.; Hu, X.; Yu, Z.; Huang, J.; Gao, B. One-pot synthesis and characterization of engineered hydrochar by hydrothermal carbonization of biomass with ZnCl2. Chemosphere 2020, 254, 126866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Niam, A.C.; Fenelon, E.; Ningsih, E.; Mirzayanti, Y.W.; Kristanti, E. High-Efficiency Adsorption of Hexavalent Chromium from Aqueous Solution by Samanea saman Activated Carbon. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol. 2022, 2022, 8960379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Abewaa, M.; Arka, A.; Haddis, T.; Mengistu, A.; Takele, T.; Adino, E.; Abay, Y.; Bekele, N.; Andualem, G.; Girmay, H. Hexavalent chromium adsorption from aqueous solution utilizing activated carbon developed from Rumex abyssinicus. Results Eng. 2024, 22, 102274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Barad, J.M.; Kohli, H.P.; Chakraborty, M. Adsorption of hexavalent chromium from aqueous stream by maghemite nanoparticles synthesized by the microemulsion method. Energy Nexus 2022, 5, 100035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Park, J.E.; Shin, J.H.; Oh, W.; Choi, S.J.; Kim, J.; Kim, C.; Jeon, J. Removal of Hexavalent Chromium(VI) from Wastewater Using Chitosan-Coated Iron Oxide Nanocomposite Membranes. Toxics 2022, 10, 98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Materials 18 05295 g001
Figure 1. XRD analysis of samples.
Figure 1. XRD analysis of samples.
Materials 18 05295 g001
Materials 18 05295 g002
Figure 2. SEM analysis of DCS 3 at different magnifications (a–d).
Figure 2. SEM analysis of DCS 3 at different magnifications (a–d).
Materials 18 05295 g002
Materials 18 05295 g003
Figure 3. N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms (a) and pore size distribution curves (b) of the samples.
Figure 3. N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms (a) and pore size distribution curves (b) of the samples.
Materials 18 05295 g003
Materials 18 05295 g004
Figure 4. FT-IR spectra analysis of samples.
Figure 4. FT-IR spectra analysis of samples.
Materials 18 05295 g004
Materials 18 05295 g005
Figure 5. Raman spectra analysis of samples.
Figure 5. Raman spectra analysis of samples.
Materials 18 05295 g005
Materials 18 05295 g006
Figure 6. XPS spectra of samples.
Figure 6. XPS spectra of samples.
Materials 18 05295 g006
Materials 18 05295 g007
Figure 7. Trends in the adsorption performance of the obtained materials for Cr(VI).
Figure 7. Trends in the adsorption performance of the obtained materials for Cr(VI).
Materials 18 05295 g007
Materials 18 05295 g008
Figure 8. Adsorption kinetics of the samples.
Figure 8. Adsorption kinetics of the samples.
Materials 18 05295 g008
Materials 18 05295 g009
Figure 9. Pseudo-first-order kinetic fitting curves of Cr(VI) adsorption by DC (a), DCS 1 (b), DCS 2 (c), DCS 3 (d),and DCS 4 (e).
Figure 9. Pseudo-first-order kinetic fitting curves of Cr(VI) adsorption by DC (a), DCS 1 (b), DCS 2 (c), DCS 3 (d),and DCS 4 (e).
Materials 18 05295 g009
Materials 18 05295 g010
Figure 10. Pseudo-second-order kinetic fitting curves of Cr(VI) adsorption by DC (a), DCS 1 (b), DCS 2 (c), DCS 3 (d), and DCS 4 (e).
Figure 10. Pseudo-second-order kinetic fitting curves of Cr(VI) adsorption by DC (a), DCS 1 (b), DCS 2 (c), DCS 3 (d), and DCS 4 (e).
Materials 18 05295 g010
Table 1. Analysis of mineral composition of samples.
Table 1. Analysis of mineral composition of samples.
ElementUnitSample Number
DCDCS 1DCS 2DCS 3DCS 4
Al2O3Al%10.059.099.2410.7710.82
CaOCa%7.628.067.697.137.64
Fe2O3Fe%2.602.592.512.672.43
K2OK%1.471.441.321.551.47
MgOMg%0.850.780.720.850.79
Na2ONa%2.453.245.668.148.07
SiO2Si%55.3050.8849.0349.4147.76
BaBa%3.533.173.243.533.56
MnMn%0.220.220.210.230.20
TiTi%0.980.890.900.970.98
Table 2. Analysis of C and H content in the samples.
Table 2. Analysis of C and H content in the samples.
Sample NumberC [%]H [%]C/H
DCS 15.620.44512.65
DCS 24.970.44711.12
DCS 33.180.28211.28
DCS 42.230.21210.49
DC1.940.1612.13
Table 3. Analysis of the specific surface area, pore volume, and average pore size of the samples.
Table 3. Analysis of the specific surface area, pore volume, and average pore size of the samples.
Sample NameSpecific Surface Area (m2/g)Pore Volume (cm3/g)Average Pore Size (nm)
DC9.060.04017.08
DCS 112.820.04916.44
DCS 213.260.05115.21
DCS 39.270.04318.32
DCS 49.640.04017.31
Table 4. Performance comparison of related materials.
Table 4. Performance comparison of related materials.
Raw MaterialSynthesis Temperatureqm/(mg/g)Reference
Bi5O7I/ZnAlBi-CLDHs-1/10-18.73[35]
Bismuth impregnated biochar60012.20[41]
Activated carbon3043.45[42]
Hydrochar by biomass with ZnCl220014.00[43]
Fe@MBC60025.46[34]
Carbon-Modified Oil-Based Cuttings 70056.84This Study
Table 5. Kinetic fitting parameters of Cr(VI) adsorption by prepared materials.
Table 5. Kinetic fitting parameters of Cr(VI) adsorption by prepared materials.
Adsorbent MaterialPseudo-First-Order KineticsPseudo-Second-Order Kinetics
k1 (min−1)R2k2 (g·mg−1·min−1)R2
DC0.033991.000.0025921.00
DCS 10.007030.990.00010.97
DCS 20.006380.985.46 × 10−50.85
DCS 30.014520.940.0003550.99
DCS 40.012550.920.0004430.99
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Huang, Y.; Li, L.; Qiao, J.; Wu, X.; Zhang, Y.; Bai, B.; Yang, L.; Pan, S.; Feng, Q.; Liu, L. Efficient Removal of Cr(VI) from Water by Carbon-Based Composites Derived from Oil-Based Drill Cuttings. Materials 2025, 18, 5295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235295

AMA Style

Huang Y, Li L, Qiao J, Wu X, Zhang Y, Bai B, Yang L, Pan S, Feng Q, Liu L. Efficient Removal of Cr(VI) from Water by Carbon-Based Composites Derived from Oil-Based Drill Cuttings. Materials. 2025; 18(23):5295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235295

Chicago/Turabian Style

Huang, Yongkui, Linzhi Li, Jiangrong Qiao, Xiaochuan Wu, Ye Zhang, Bo Bai, Liu Yang, Shubiao Pan, Qi Feng, and Li Liu. 2025. "Efficient Removal of Cr(VI) from Water by Carbon-Based Composites Derived from Oil-Based Drill Cuttings" Materials 18, no. 23: 5295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235295

APA Style

Huang, Y., Li, L., Qiao, J., Wu, X., Zhang, Y., Bai, B., Yang, L., Pan, S., Feng, Q., & Liu, L. (2025). Efficient Removal of Cr(VI) from Water by Carbon-Based Composites Derived from Oil-Based Drill Cuttings. Materials, 18(23), 5295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235295

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop