1. Introduction
Concrete is one of the most important and accessible construction materials in the market. The fresh and hardened state of this cementitious composite plays an important role in the workability, strength, durability and labor costs of the construction. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a special type of concrete with a high rate of consistency that can be spread and consolidated under its own weight within the framework; that is leveled through the expulsion of trapped air and compacting, even in the most heavily reinforced areas and narrowest sections, without the need for vibration; that does not cause such problems as segregation and bleeding; and that maintains its cohesion [
1,
2,
3].
SCC was first developed in Japan in the late 1980s as a result of efforts to develop more durable concrete [
4]. SCC is highly fluid and can be spread over the desired section under its own weight, achieving fullness in the section without the need for internal or external vibration [
5]. In addition to the above-mentioned characteristics, SCC is required to resist either blockage or clogging between obstacles when flowing, as well as segregation [
6]. These characteristics are associated with the fluidity, permeability and segregation resistance of SCC [
7,
8]. The use of high-performance plasticizers in particular can increase workability without impairing the viscosity or cohesion of the fresh concrete, which can lead to segregation [
9]. The two main features of SCC are its high fluidity and its high resistance to segregation, which are achieved through the use of large amounts of powder materials and plasticizers. The aim of using plasticizers is to obtain the desired rheological behavior of the fresh concrete according to the technology used and the conditions for the implementation process of concreting [
10]. Fly ash, stone dust, GBFS and silica fume can all be used as viscosity-enhancing powder materials in SCC [
11].
The rheological or flow properties of concrete are important due to their role in the placement, strength and durability of the product. Fresh concrete exhibits fluid behavior and is often assumed to have the properties of a Bingham fluid. In such a fluid profile, at least two parameters, including threshold (critical) shear stress and viscosity, are used to describe the flow behavior [
12]. It is noted that in some cases, however, shear thickening can occur due to high shear rates or low water content, as shown in
Figure 1 [
13,
14]. Previous studies have shown that the mineral additives used in the mixture, such as quartz or fly ash, as well as the particle size distribution, contribute to shear thickening [
15,
16]. In such cases, it has been noted that shear thickening can be better expressed by Herschel–Bulkley and modified Bingham models [
17].
With the industrialization of society, the management of waste generation has become one of the most serious environmental problems. In order to overcome harmful environmental pollution, appropriate waste management becomes a resource that contributes to the reduction of raw material consumption, provides significant benefits in the protection of natural assets, reduces the impact on climate change and supports sustainable development [
18]. Mineral-based materials such as fly ash, metakaolin, GBFS, silica fume and stone dust can be used as powder components in SCC mixtures [
19], and there have been studies demonstrating their positive effects on workability, mechanical properties, shrinkage and crack formation [
20,
21]. Meera et al. found that equivalent workability could be achieved through the use of fewer plasticizer additives in SCC mixtures containing granite and marble powder than in those containing fly ash [
22]. The fine MD generated during the cutting of marble can be used in the production of concrete to increase the filler effect of fine aggregate, and marble waste is used as an alternative to limestone in the cement sector. There are over 200 marble cutting plants in Bilecik, making the utilization of marble waste essential. Marble wastes can be generated from the beginning of the mining process and machining processes such as cutting, polishing and finishing of this natural stone [
23]. The use of MD in concrete reduces the permeability of the concrete and improves its mechanical properties [
24]. In their study, Gameiro et al. reported improvement in the water absorption and capillary action of concrete containing 20% marble aggregate, thereby achieving higher durability [
25]. Especially, depending on the fine particle size distribution of the MD, it exhibits a favorable inner filler effect for the improved workability performance. Tennich et al. concluded that the marble wastes are beneficial and have a positive effect on the fresh state of the concrete by reducing plastic shrinkage [
26]. In addition, the higher calcium content of MD helps to strengthen the hardened properties of the SCC [
27].
GBFS is an important pozzolanic material that is generated as a by-product in the iron and steel sector. It becomes glassy when cooled rapidly and can be finely ground for use as a mineral additive in concrete and cement [
28,
29]. Research has shown that large proportions of GBFS, when used as a mineral additive, can have positive effects on the durability of reinforced concrete structures that are exposed to sulfate attack, and reduce the chloride permeability of concrete [
30,
31]. The use of GBFS as a powder component in SCC mixtures offers many advantages, with studies having shown the long-term preservation of compactability and concrete consistency in SCC, as well as improvements in durability. As to the rheology of fresh concrete, it is noted that particle size optimization and particle packing are improved through the use of GBFS, thus increasing its segregation resistance [
32]. Improvement was observed in workability when GBFS was used in place of cement in proportions up to 20%; however, the increased slag content resulted in decreased yield stress and plastic viscosity [
33]. As to the properties of hardened concrete, late-age strength increases, while the use of GBFS at proportions of 50–75% in SCC mixtures has been shown to have a positive effect on the durability of concrete [
34].
This study aims to propose a different field in the economic recovery of these industrial wastes by examining the performance of MD and GBFS as dust content in SCC mixtures. In the present study, the rheological and durability properties of SCC mixtures containing MD and GBFS were determined through tests, with fresh concrete and rheological properties being analyzed when using MD and GBFS additives in different proportions in place of fine aggregate in fresh SCC mixtures. The study explores the effect on the compressive strength and the behavior of SCC to abrasion effects, freeze–thaw and sulfate attack, as the most common phenomena to which hardened SCC is subjected during its lifecycle. The results showed that the mechanical and durability properties of the SCC can be increased by utilizing MD and GBFS up to 10% and 30%, respectively.
5. Discussion
GBFS is a type of pozzolanic industrial waste while MD has no pozzolanic behavior. The reduction in strength for MD used as supplementary cementitious materials is related to the dilution of pozzolanic reactions in these mixtures [
53,
54]. According to this phenomenon, this research is focused on the utilization of MD as an aggregate replacement against the fine aggregate portion of the SCC. In the study, it was also aimed to determine the influence of filling and pozzolanic abilities of the GBFS usage on the desired workability, durability and mechanical properties of SCC as prescribed in the previous studies [
55]. According to fresh SCC results, the optimum MD usage is found as 10% while this replacement ratio is 20% for the GBFS. This fact depends on the fineness of the MD and GBFS as presented in
Table 3. This is because the higher specific surface area of the MD shows a better-filling effect in the matrix; however, replacement over 10% causes an increase in the viscosity and reduction in the workability. Higher MD and GBFS replacement against fine aggregate had increased the total powder content of the mixture which caused an increase in plastic viscosity [
17]. The filling ability (slump flow and T
500) and passing ability (L-box testing) have been determined by standard workability tests [
42]. The results revealed that aggregate replacement ratios above 20% reduced the filling and passing abilities of the SCC mixtures. This result can be attributed to the irregular-shaped particles from GBFS and MD, leading to the reduction in the friction factor and enhancement in the workability performance [
51]. In addition, increasing the fineness of the total particles in the SCC mixture can increase the amount of mixing water for the required consistency, which could lead to an increase in the porosity of the concrete [
56].
Compressive strength test results showed different behavior in both MD and GBFS specimens due to the increased aggregate replacement ratios. Belaidi et al. had found that 10% MD usage in binary SCC mixtures showed optimum performance for both workability and compressive strength [
57]. This behavior can be explained by the non-pozzolanic structure of the MD. The strength increase for the MD10 mixture depends on the filler effect of the fine MD that is replaced against fine aggregate in the SCC mixture [
58,
59]. The dual effect of GBFS (filler and pozzolanic) that is replaced as aggregate resulted in a more effective strength performance than MD thanks to both the filling and the pozzolanic effect playing a role in the compressive strength of SCC specimens. The strength development of SCC specimens using GBFS are positively affected at later ages due to the reactive silica content as defined in the previous studies [
60,
61].
The same effect of MD and GBFS also influenced the durability properties of the hardened composite. Unit weight and abrasion resistance of the produced SCC specimens have been beneficially affected by the gap-filling effect of the MD and GBFS [
26]. Additionally, the pozzolanic reaction products inside the matrix increase the durability by reducing the amount of cement hydration by-product Ca(OH)
2 especially for sulfate resistance of SCC [
62].