Flexible and Stretchable Bioelectronics
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Opportunities and Limitations in Bioelectronic Devices
3. Materials
3.1. Polymeric Substrates
3.2. Conductive Materials
3.2.1. Metal Nanowires
3.2.2. Conductive Polymers and Conductive Liquids
3.3. Carbon-Based Materials
3.3.1. Graphene
3.3.2. Carbon Black
4. Engineering Organic/Inorganic Functional Materials in Stretchable Bioelectronic Devices
4.1. Structural Configurations to Render Stretchability to Hard Inorganic Materials
4.2. Chemical Vapor Deposition for Creating Thin Films
4.3. Lithography Method for Creating Thin Films and Nanowires
4.4. Printing for Creating Thin Films of Conductive Liquids
4.5. Wet Spinning Method for Flexible/Stretchable and Conductive Fiber Production
5. Transducers and Communication
5.1. Piezoelectric Transducers
5.2. Ultrasonic Transducers
5.3. Wearable Antenna Communication
5.4. Wireless Communication
6. Power Sources
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Wearable Devices | Implantable Devices |
---|---|
Nonirritating to Dermal tissue | Nonirritating, compliant to match surrounding tissue |
Not cytotoxic, via leachable substances | Not cytotoxic |
Either non degrading, or degraded substances are safe | Degraded substances are safe |
Hemocompatibility (Indirect contact) | Hemocompatibility (direct contact) |
Minimize/eliminate biofouling |
Materials | Company | Young’s Modulus | Stretchability | Poisson’s Ratio | Applications |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Silicone | Azo Materials | 0.001–0.05 GPa | 1000%–2000% [73] | 0.47–0.49 [74] | Insulation |
PDMS | Dow’s Sylgard 184 | ~1–3 MPa [75] | ~1000% [47] | ~0.5 [76] | Encapsulation/Nonconductive polymer |
Polyimide | Dupont | 2.5 GPa | 260% [77] | 0.34 at 23 °C | Neurocortical electrode arrays |
Parylene-C | - | 2.8 GPa, 3.2 GPa, 4.5 GPa [78,79] | 20–200% [78] | 0.4 [79] | Neural electrode substrate |
PEDOT-PSS | - | 1–7.5 GPa | ~10% [80] | 0.34 | Conductive tracts |
Polyurethane elastomer | - | 4.7 MPa, 5.3 MPa, 7.4 MPa [48] | ~1890% [51] | 0.45–0.5 | Vascular grafts, blood bags |
Graphene | - | ~1 TPa [81] | ~30% [82] | 0.456 ± 0.008 [83] | Logic gates, transistors |
Fabrication Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Application: For creating thin films | Grow thin solid film on the substrate. Grow large-area and high-quality graphene film on metal substrate. | Need a metal (Ni, Cu) substrate to grow graphene layer. Cannot use polymer substrate to grow graphene layer. Challenge of growing large-grain crystal, which is required to enhance the electronic, mechanical, and thermal properties. Alternative: Modified CVD can be used to produce large-grain and highly crystalline film. Crystal growth variation at different areas. Requires transfer of the 2D film from the growth substrate to the target stretchable device substrate to add the stretchability property to the device. Possible contamination and damage during transfer of the film to the target. |
Plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD) Application: For creating thin films on polymer substrate. | Potential for direct growth of graphene layer on polymer substrate. Utilizes low processing temperature, providing an opportunity to use polymer as substrate. | Inferior graphene properties. Formation of cracks in the graphene structure may occur if repeatedly strained, leading to an increase in resistance. |
UV lithography Application: For creating patterns for circuits for microelectronics, sensing, and optoelectronics. Can also be used to create high-aspect-ratio structures and 3D nanostructures such as nanowires (A novel top-down fabrication process for a vertically-stacked silicon-nanowire array). | Fabricate desired pattern ranging from nm to µm size on substrate. Soft and stretchable substrate can be used. | Can pattern only photoresist and may require a photomask for masked lithography [126,127]. Can be expensive if infrastructure such as a mask aligner is needed to develop complicated structures [128]. Resolution of the projection optics is diffraction-limited [126,129]. Challenging to design complex optics. Use of harsh processing conditions such as ion, plasma, acid, or temperature treatment to remove barrier layer, which limits the use of the substrate or photoresist that cannot handle such harsh processing [130]. |
Electron beam (E-beam) lithography Application: For producing patterns in a photomask | Produce a photomask. High-resolution approach to creating a photomask. | High resolution approach and therefore, time consuming. Not suitable for mass production. |
Soft lithography Application: Thin film fabrication on soft substrates. | Micro/nano-structures can be fabricated on a soft substrate. Can be used to fabricate a mold. Easy, fast, low-cost, mass reproducible process. Does not require harsh processing chemicals. | Requires a stamp or a mold. |
Printing Application: For creating thin film circuits of conductive liquids. | Can be used with conductive polymer composites and conductive liquid metals, thereby aiding in the fabrication of flexible and stretchable devices. Fast, accurate, and fully automated non-contact approach. Repeatable and scalable. Capability of achieving electronics with complex patterns without compromising the electrical conductivity of devices. | Requires good choice of conductive material and a solvent with appropriate viscosity, surface tension, and rheology. Requires the sintering process to create a conductive path. |
Wet spinning method Application: For fabricating stretchable and electrically conductive fibers for wearable electronics (strain sensors, supercapacitors, nanogenerators). | Good technology for wearable electronics as the fibers can withstand mechanical deformations such as bending, folding, twisting, and stretching. A facile and viable strategy to fluidly spin the macroscopic fiber in a continuous way. Ability to control the diameter of the fiber by choosing an appropriate nozzle size of the spinneret. | Shear-thinning spinning ink is required for efficient flow. Requires selection of an appropriate coagulation bath so that the extruded spinning ink is rapidly vulcanized without any breakup. |
Frequency | Application |
---|---|
401–402 MHz | Medical Implant Communication Services (MICS). |
402–405 MHz | |
403.5–403.8 MHz | |
405–406 MHz | |
413–457 MHz | Medradio Micropower Networks (MMNs), transmit and relay data for implanted and body-worn medical devices for diagnostics and therapeutic functions. |
2.4 and 5 GHz | Wi-Fi, smart hospital beds, mobile nursing stations. |
2.404–2.478 GHz | Bluetooth, indoor navigation for patients, connectivity between the device and the smartphone for heath-data monitoring. |
2.36–2.4 GHz | New Medical BAN (MBAN). |
New Medical BAN (MBAN) | Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM). |
3.1–10.76 GHz | Ultra-Wideband (UWB). |
57–64 G | The band plans and rules at mmW-60 BAN. |
59–66 GHz |
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Chitrakar, C.; Hedrick, E.; Adegoke, L.; Ecker, M. Flexible and Stretchable Bioelectronics. Materials 2022, 15, 1664. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051664
Chitrakar C, Hedrick E, Adegoke L, Ecker M. Flexible and Stretchable Bioelectronics. Materials. 2022; 15(5):1664. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051664
Chicago/Turabian StyleChitrakar, Chandani, Eric Hedrick, Lauren Adegoke, and Melanie Ecker. 2022. "Flexible and Stretchable Bioelectronics" Materials 15, no. 5: 1664. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051664