Cubic Lattice Structures of Ti6Al4V under Compressive Loading: Towards Assessing the Performance for Hard Tissue Implants Alternative
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. FE Analysis
2.3. Fabrication of PLS
2.4. Evaluation of Morphology, Porosity, and Mechanical Properties
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. FE Analysis
3.2. Morphological Characterization
3.3. Mechanical Characterization
3.4. Fracture Mechanisms
4. Conclusions
- FE analysis was used to define the design limits by measuring von Mises stress distribution and total deformation leading to the selection of suitable unit cell parameters for PLS manufacture.
- Cubic PLS samples with a relative density of 27–56% were successfully fabricated via the SLM technique. This could be attained by varying unit cell dimensions keeping the same number of unit cells in each PLS.
- In total, 7–8% variation was found in relative density of the fabricated PLS when compared with the designed model. This variation was linear and primarily due to the shrinkage and system capabilities.
- The maximum ultimate compressive strength was found to be 119 MPa of PLS with a pore size of 600 μm and an overall RD of 55%, which is comparable with that of human bone.
- The failure of the structure initiated from the micro-porosity formed during the fabrication process due to the improper melting. Furthermore, failure occurs in vertical strut along a plane inclined at 45 degrees.
- Making a decision on the best design parameters for bio scaffolds requires comprehensive research that contains both mechanical and biological aspects under the same conditions. Thus, the future study will concern the biological response of the proposed PLS. This will make the clinical use of these PLS more reliable and safe.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bahraminasab, M.; Farahmand, F. State of the art review on design and manufacture of hybrid biomedical materials: Hip and knee prostheses. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H J. Eng. Med. 2017, 231, 785–813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bahraminasab, M.; Edwards, K.L. Biocomposites for Hard Tissue Replacement and Repair BT—Futuristic Composites: Behavior, Characterization, and Manufacturing; Sidhu, S.S., Bains, P.S., Zitoune, R., Yazdani, M., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2018; pp. 281–296. ISBN 978-981-13-2417-8. [Google Scholar]
- Karageorgiou, V.; Kaplan, D. Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis. Biomaterials 2005, 26, 5474–5491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dhiman, S.; Sidhu, S.S.; Bains, P.S.; Baharaminasab, M. Mechanobiological assessment of Ti-6Al-4V fabricated via selective laser melting technique: A review. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2019, 25, 1266–1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, M.; Dhiman, S.; Singh, H.; Berndt, C.C. Optimization of modulation-assisted drilling of Ti-6Al-4V aerospace alloy via response surface method. Mater. Manuf. Process. 2020, 35, 1313–1329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dhiman, S.; Sidhu, S.S. Reduction of scrap and inspection effort: An approach incorporating In-Dustry 4.0. Proceedings of Electrophysical Machining in Modern Industry conference, Tomsk, Russia, 4–15 December 2020; pp. 13–21. [Google Scholar]
- Dhiman, S.; Joshi, R.S.; Singh, S.; Gill, S.S.; Singh, H.; Kumar, R.; Kumar, V. A framework for effective and clean conversion of machining waste into metal powder feedstock for additive manufacturing. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2021, 4, 100151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, F.; Ran, Q.; Zhao, M.; Zhang, T.; Zhang, D.Z.; Su, Z. Additively Manufactured Continuous Cell-Size Gradient Porous Scaffolds: Pore Characteristics, Mechanical Properties and Biological Responses In Vitro. Materials 2020, 13, 2589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barui, S.; Chatterjee, S.; Mandal, S.; Kumar, A.; Basu, B. Microstructure and compression properties of 3D powder printed Ti-6Al-4V scaffolds with designed porosity: Experimental and computational analysis. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2017, 70, 812–823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z.; Kucukkoc, I.; Zhang, D.Z.; Liu, F. Optimising the process parameters of selective laser melting for the fabrication of Ti6Al4V alloy. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2018, 24, 150–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, J.; Yang, H.; Yu, H.; Wang, Z.; Wang, H.; Zeng, X. A novel approach to in-situ fabricate Ti-6Al-4V alloy with graded microstructure and property by selective laser melting. Mater. Lett. 2018, 215, 246–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Z.; Wu, X.; Tomus, D.; Davies, C.H. Surface roughness of Selective Laser Melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy components. Addit. Manuf. 2018, 21, 91–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taniguchi, N.; Fujibayashi, S.; Takemoto, M.; Sasaki, K.; Otsuki, B.; Nakamura, T.; Matsushita, T.; Kokubo, T.; Matsuda, S. Effect of pore size on bone ingrowth into porous titanium implants fabricated by additive manufacturing: An in vivo experiment. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2016, 59, 690–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Dmitriev, A.I. Numerical model of a local contact of a polymer nanocomposite and its experimental validation. Facta Univ. Ser. Mech. Eng. 2021, 19, 79–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Günther, J.; Leuders, S.; Koppa, P.; Tröster, T.; Henkel, S.; Biermann, H.; Niendorf, T. On the effect of internal channels and surface roughness on the high-cycle fatigue performance of Ti-6Al-4V processed by SLM. Mater. Des. 2018, 143, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Timur, R.A.; Karim, R.M.; Aleksey, A., Ш; Evgeniy, S.; Sahil, D.; Singh, S.S. Computational and experimental study of lattice structured patterns for casting process. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2020, 27, 197–206. [Google Scholar]
- Becker, S.T.; Bolte, H.; Krapf, O.; Seitz, H.; Douglas, T.; Sivananthan, S.; Wiltfang, J.; Sherry, E.; Warnke, P.H. Endocultivation: 3D printed customized porous scaffolds for heterotopic bone induction. Oral Oncol. 2009, 45, e181–e188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International, A. F2792-12a-Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies. Rapid Manuf. Assoc. 2013, 10–12. [Google Scholar]
- Ji, H.; Gupta, M.K.; Song, Q.; Cai, W.; Zheng, T.; Zhao, Y.; Liu, Z.; Pimenov, D.Y. Microstructure and machinability evaluation in micro milling of selective laser melted Inconel 718 alloy. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dadbakhsh, S.; Mertens, R.; Hao, L.; Van Humbeeck, J.; Kruth, J. Selective Laser Melting to Manufacture “In Situ” Metal Matrix Composites: A Review. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2019, 21, 1801244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sing, S.; Huang, S.; Goh, G.; Tey, C.; Tan, J.; Yeong, W. Emerging metallic systems for additive manufacturing: In-situ alloying and multi-metal processing in laser powder bed fusion. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2021, 119, 100795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, X.; Xiao, X.; Wang, Y.; Gu, C.; Wang, C.; Chen, J.; Liu, H.; Luo, J.; Li, T.; Wang, D.; et al. Biocompatibility of Bespoke 3D-Printed Titanium Alloy Plates for Treating Acetabular Fractures. BioMed Res. Int. 2018, 2018, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rankouhi, B.; Bertsch, K.; de Bellefon, G.M.; Thevamaran, M.; Thoma, D.; Suresh, K. Experimental validation and microstructure characterization of topology optimized, additively manufactured SS316L components. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2020, 776, 139050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brandl, E.; Leyens, C.; Palm, F. Mechanical Properties of Additive Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V Using Wire and Powder Based Processes. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2011, 26, 26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niu, X.; Garg, A.; Peng, X.; Zhang, Q.; Singh, S.; Singh, H.; Panda, B. Review of materials used in laser-aided additive man-ufacturing processes to produce metallic products. Front. Mech. Eng. 2018, 14, 282–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Prakash, K.S.; Gopal, P.; Anburose, D.; Kavimani, V. Mechanical, corrosion and wear characteristics of powder metallurgy processed Ti-6Al-4V/B4C metal matrix composites. Ain Shams Eng. J. 2018, 9, 1489–1496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kobryn, P.A.; Semiatin, S.L. Mechanical properties of laser-deposited Ti-6Al-4V. Solid Free. Fabr. Proc. 2001, 6–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saboori, A.; Gallo, D.; Biamino, S.; Fino, P.; Lombardi, M. An Overview of Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Components by Directed Energy Deposition: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties. Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heinl, P.; Körner, C.; Singer, R.F. Selective Electron Beam Melting of Cellular Titanium: Mechanical Properties. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2008, 10, 882–888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pałka, K.; Pokrowiecki, R. Porous Titanium Implants: A Review. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2018, 20, 1700648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abbasi, N.; Hamlet, S.; Love, R.M.; Nguyen, N.-T. Porous scaffolds for bone regeneration. J. Sci. Adv. Mater. Devices 2020, 5, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parthasarathy, J.; Starly, B.; Raman, S.; Christensen, A. Mechanical evaluation of porous titanium (Ti6Al4V) structures with electron beam melting (EBM). J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2010, 3, 249–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jamshidi, P.; Aristizabal, M.; Kong, W.; Villapun, V.; Cox, S.C.; Grover, L.M.; Attallah, M.M. Selective Laser Melting of Ti-6Al-4V: The Impact of Post-processing on the Tensile, Fatigue and Biological Properties for Medical Implant Applications. Materials 2020, 13, 2813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Roosa, S.M.M.; Kemppainen, J.M.; Moffitt, E.N.; Krebsbach, P.H.; Hollister, S.J. The pore size of polycaprolactone scaffolds has limited influence on bone regeneration in anin vivomodel. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 2010, 92, 359–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bartolomeu, F.; Costa, M.; Alves, N.; Miranda, G.; Silva, F. Selective Laser Melting of Ti6Al4V sub-millimetric cellular structures: Prediction of dimensional deviations and mechanical performance. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2021, 113, 104123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ginestra, P.; Ferraro, R.M.; Zohar-Hauber, K.; Abeni, A.; Giliani, S.; Ceretti, E. Selective Laser Melting and Electron Beam Melting of Ti6Al4V for Orthopedic Applications: A Comparative Study on the Applied Building Direction. Materials 2020, 13, 5584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Galarreta, S.R.; Jeffers, J.R.; Ghouse, S. A validated finite element analysis procedure for porous structures. Mater. Des. 2020, 189, 108546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hacisalihoğlu, İ.; Yildiz, F.; Çelik, A. Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Mechanical Properties of Different Lattice Structures Manufactured from Medical Titanium Alloy by Using Laser Beam-Powder Bed Fusion. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2021, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehboob, H.; Tarlochan, F.; Mehboob, A.; Chang, S.-H.; Ramesh, S.; Harun, W.S.W.; Kadirgama, K. A novel design, analysis and 3D printing of Ti-6Al-4V alloy bio-inspired porous femoral stem. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2020, 31, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mircheski, I.; Gradišar, M. 3D finite element analysis of porous Ti-based alloy prostheses. Comput. Methods Biomech. Biomed. Eng. 2016, 19, 1531–1540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, W.; Yu, A.; Lu, X.; Tamaddon, M.; Wang, M.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, J.; Qu, X.; Liu, C.; Su, B. Design and performance evaluation of additively manufactured composite lattice structures of commercially pure Ti (CP–Ti). Bioact. Mater. 2021, 6, 1215–1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pashnyov, V.; Pimenov, D.Y. Stress Analysis of a Three-Layer Metal Composite System of Bearing Assemblies during Grinding. Mech. Compos. Mater. 2015, 51, 77–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, J.; Gu, D.; Lin, K.; Wu, L.; Zhang, H.; Guo, M.; Yuan, L. Laser additive manufacturing of cellular structure with enhanced compressive performance inspired by Al–Si crystalline microstructure. CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 2021, 32, 26–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burstein, A.H.; Reilly, D.T.; Martens, M. Aging of bone tissue: Mechanical properties. J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am. Vol. 1976, 58, 82–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, F.G. Mechanical properties and histology of cortical bone from younger and older men. Anat. Rec. 1976, 185, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bahraminasab, M. Challenges on optimization of 3D-printed bone scaffolds. Biomed. Eng. Online 2020, 19, 1–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zaharin, H.A.; Rani, A.M.A.; Azam, F.I.; Ginta, T.L.; Sallih, N.; Ahmad, A.; Yunus, N.A.; Zulkifli, T.Z.A. Effect of Unit Cell Type and Pore Size on Porosity and Mechanical Behavior of Additively Manufactured Ti6Al4V Scaffolds. Materials 2018, 11, 2402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Skalon, M.; Meier, B.; Leitner, T.; Arneitz, S.; Amancio-Filho, S.; Sommitsch, C. Reuse of Ti6Al4V Powder and Its Impact on Surface Tension, Melt Pool Behavior and Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured Components. Materials 2021, 14, 1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Townsend, A.; Senin, N.; Blunt, L.; Leach, R.; Taylor, J. Surface texture metrology for metal additive manufacturing: A review. Precis. Eng. 2016, 46, 34–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Farzadi, A.; Waran, V.; Solati-Hashjin, M.; Rahman, Z.A.A.; Asadi, M.; Abu Osman, N.A. Effect of layer printing delay on mechanical properties and dimensional accuracy of 3D printed porous prototypes in bone tissue engineering. Ceram. Int. 2015, 41, 8320–8330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sola, A.; Nouri, A. Microstructural porosity in additive manufacturing: The formation and detection of pores in metal parts fabricated by powder bed fusion. J. Adv. Manuf. Process. 2019, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuncer, N.; Arslan, G. Designing compressive properties of titanium foams. J. Mater. Sci. 2009, 44, 1477–1484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, D.; Huang, Y.; Ao, Y.; Han, C.; Wang, Q.; Li, Y.; Liu, J.; Wei, Q.; Zhang, Z. Effect of pore geometry on the fatigue properties and cell affinity of porous titanium scaffolds fabricated by selective laser melting. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2018, 88, 478–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- de Jesus, J.; Martins Ferreira, J.A.; Borrego, L.; Costa, J.D.; Capela, C. Fatigue Failure from Inner Surfaces of Additive Manu-factured Ti-6Al-4V Components. Materials 2021, 14, 737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kadkhodapour, J.; Montazerian, H.; Darabi, A.C.; Anaraki, A.P.; Ahmadi, S.; Zadpoor, A.A.; Schmauder, S. Failure mechanisms of additively manufactured porous biomaterials: Effects of porosity and type of unit cell. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2015, 50, 180–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, X.-Y.; Fang, G.; Zhou, J. Additively Manufactured Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering and the Prediction of their Mechanical Behavior: A Review. Materials 2017, 10, 50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Genovese, K.; Leeflang, S.; Zadpoor, A.A. Microscopic full-field three-dimensional strain measurement during the mechanical testing of additively manufactured porous biomaterials. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2017, 69, 327–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yavari, S.A.; Wauthle, R.; van der Stok, J.; Riemslag, A.; Janssen, M.; Mulier, M.; Kruth, J.; Schrooten, J.; Weinans, H.; Zadpoor, A.A. Fatigue behavior of porous biomaterials manufactured using selective laser melting. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2013, 33, 4849–4858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arabnejad, S.; Johnston, R.B.; Pura, J.A.; Singh, B.; Tanzer, M.; Pasini, D. High-strength porous biomaterials for bone replacement: A strategy to assess the interplay between cell morphology, mechanical properties, bone ingrowth and manufacturing constraints. Acta Biomater. 2016, 30, 345–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yavari, S.A.; Ahmadi, S.; Wauthle, R.; Pouran, B.; Schrooten, J.; Weinans, H.; Zadpoor, A.A. Relationship between unit cell type and porosity and the fatigue behavior of selective laser melted meta-biomaterials. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2015, 43, 91–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Wild, M.; Zimmermann, S.; Rüegg, J.; Schumacher, R.; Fleischmann, T.; Ghayor, C.; Weber, F.E. Influence of Microarchitecture on Osteoconduction and Mechanics of Porous Titanium Scaffolds Generated by Selective Laser Melting. 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 2016, 3, 142–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choy, S.Y.; Sun, C.-N.; Leong, K.F.; Wei, J. Compressive properties of Ti-6Al-4V lattice structures fabricated by selective laser melting: Design, orientation and density. Addit. Manuf. 2017, 16, 213–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, H.; Yang, Y.; Xie, D.; Li, L.; Mao, N.; Wang, C.; Tian, Z.; Jiang, Q.; Shen, L. Trabecular-like Ti-6Al-4V scaffolds for orthopedic: Fabrication by selective laser melting and in vitro biocompatibility. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2019, 35, 1284–1297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
(a) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Element | Ti | Al | V | Fe | O | N | C | H |
Contribution (wt.%) | Balance | 5.5–6.5 | 3.5–4.5 | ≤0.30 | ≤0.20 | ≤0.05 | ≤0.08 | ≤0.015 |
(b) | ||||||||
Property | Value | Unit | ||||||
Elastic modulus | 104.8 | GPa | ||||||
Poisson’s ratio | 0.31 | - | ||||||
Tensile strength | 1050 | MPa | ||||||
Yield strength | 827.37 | MPa | ||||||
Mass density | 4.4 | g/cm3 |
S.No. | Pore Size (µm) | Strut Thickness (µm) | RD (%) | Unit Cell Size (µm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 200 | 500 | 70 | 1200 |
2 | 400 | 400 | 48 | 1200 |
3 | 600 | 300 | 29 | 1200 |
4 | 800 | 200 | 10 | 1200 |
5 | 400 | 800 | 77 | 2000 |
6 | 600 | 700 | 60 | 2000 |
7 | 800 | 600 | 43 | 2000 |
8 | 1000 | 500 | 30 | 2000 |
9 | 1200 | 400 | 20 | 2000 |
10 | 1400 | 300 | 8 | 2000 |
11 | 900 | 1000 | 55 | 2800 |
12 | 1200 | 800 | 43 | 2800 |
13 | 1400 | 700 | 35 | 2800 |
14 | 1800 | 500 | 12 | 2800 |
Parameter | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|
Scan speed | 1200 | mm/s |
Hatch spacing | 0.14 | mm |
Layer thickness | 0.03 | mm |
Laser power | 280 | W |
Laser diameter | 80 | μm |
Unit Cell Geometry | Pore Size (µm) | Strut Thickness (µm) | Porosity % | UCS (MPa) | E (GPa) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cubic | 600 | 700 | 45 | 119 | 1.1 ± 0.2 | Present study |
Diamond | - | 246 ± 17.9 | - | 115 ± 3 | - | [57] |
Diamond | 600 | - | 66 ± 0.3 | 113 | 3.694 | [55] |
Dodecahedron | 560 ± 186 | - | 66.4 ± 0.3 | 117.2 ± 1.1 | 3.49 ± 0.02 | [58] |
Octet-truss | 1000 | 400 | 77 | 117.3 ± 5.9 | 2.5 ± 0.2 | [53] |
Tetrahedron | 1000 | 400 | 84 | 100.65 ± 2.9 | 1.31 ± 0.0 | [53] |
Tetrahedron | 480 | 240 | 70 | 120 ± 4 | 2.9 ± 0.1 | [59] |
Honeycomb | 400 | - | 77.5 ± 0.43 | 107.1 | - | [62] |
Irregular pores | - | 368 ± 81 | 69.5 | 122 | 3.3 | [63] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Dhiman, S.; Singh, M.; Sidhu, S.S.; Bahraminasab, M.; Pimenov, D.Y.; Mikolajczyk, T. Cubic Lattice Structures of Ti6Al4V under Compressive Loading: Towards Assessing the Performance for Hard Tissue Implants Alternative. Materials 2021, 14, 3866. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143866
Dhiman S, Singh M, Sidhu SS, Bahraminasab M, Pimenov DY, Mikolajczyk T. Cubic Lattice Structures of Ti6Al4V under Compressive Loading: Towards Assessing the Performance for Hard Tissue Implants Alternative. Materials. 2021; 14(14):3866. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143866
Chicago/Turabian StyleDhiman, Sahil, Malkeet Singh, Sarabjeet Singh Sidhu, Marjan Bahraminasab, Danil Yurievich Pimenov, and Tadeusz Mikolajczyk. 2021. "Cubic Lattice Structures of Ti6Al4V under Compressive Loading: Towards Assessing the Performance for Hard Tissue Implants Alternative" Materials 14, no. 14: 3866. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143866