Recent Progress on Fullerene-Based Materials: Synthesis, Properties, Modifications, and Photocatalytic Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Role of Fullerene
2.1. Basic Principles of Semiconducting Photocatalysis
2.2. The Role of Fullerene in Semiconductor/Fullerene Photocatalysts
3. Synthesis of Semiconductor/Fullerene Photocatalysts
3.1. Simple Adsorption Method
3.2. Hydrothermal Synthesis Method
3.3. Ball Milling Method
3.4. Other Techniques
4. The Photocatalytic Application of Fullerene/Semiconductor Photocatalysts
4.1. Fullerene Based TiO2 Photocatalysts
4.2. Metal Oxides (Except TiO2)/Fullerene Photocatalyst
4.3. Metal Sulfide/Fullerene Nanocomposites
4.4. Bismuth-Based Semiconductor/Fullerene Composites
4.5. Carbon Nitride/Fullerene Composites
4.6. Other Semiconductor/Fullerene Photocatalysts
4.7. Discussions and Conclusions for Photocatalytic Applications of Fullerene/Semiconductor Photocatalysts
5. Fullerene/Support (Non-Semiconductor) Photocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment
6. Conclusions and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Photocatalyst (Additive Amount) | Synthesis Method (Fullerene Content) | Pollutants | Experimental Conditions (Light Source, Pollutant Concentration and React Time) | Photocatalytic Activity | Enhancement Factor | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TiO2/C60 (1 g/L) | In-situ growth (2.0 wt %) | Methylene blue (MB) | UV irradiation, 1.0 × 10−4 mol/L, 60 min | 99% | around 75% for TiO2 | [67] |
TiO2/C60 (1 g/L) | Ultrasonication–evaporation (1.0 wt %) | RhB | 500 W Xe-lamp (>400 nm), 10 mg/L, 150 min | 95% | below 5% for TiO2 | [68] |
TiO2/C70 (1 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (8.5 wt %) | Sulfathiazole | 300 W Xenon lamp (>420 nm), 10 mg/mL, 180 min | 80% | 10% for TiO2 | [69] |
ZnO/C60 (0.5 g/L) | Simple adsorption (1.5 wt %) | MB | 8 W UV lamp (λ = 254 nm), 8 mg/L | k = 0.0569 min−1 | 3-times than ZnO | [70] |
ZnO/C60 (0.83 g/L) | Chemical vapor (16.7 wt %) | Phenol | 1500 W xenon lamp simulating solar light, 20 mg/L | k = 0.160 min−1 | 1.22-times than ZnO | [42] |
ZnFe2O4@C60 (1 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis | Norfloxacin | Solar irradiation, 20 mL of 50 ppm norfloxacin, 90 min | 85% | 60% for ZnFe2O4 | [71] |
WO3@C60 | Hydrothermal synthesis (4.0 wt %) | MB | Visible light, 90 min | 94% | Inferior degradation efficiency for pure WO3 | [53] |
ZnAlTi-LDH@C60 (ZnAlTi-LDO) 0.5 g/L | Precipitation (5%) | Bisphenol A (BPA) | 300 W xenon lamp simulating visible light, 10 mg/L, 60 min | 80% | below 10% for ZnAlTi-LDH | [38] |
CdS/C60 (1 g/L) | One-pot hydrothermal method (0.4 wt %) | RhB | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 20 mL, 10 ppm of RhB | k = 0.089 min−1 | 1.5-times than CdS | [43] |
C3N4/C60 (0.6 g/L) | Simple adsorption (1.0 wt %) | RhB | 500 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 50 mL, 1.0 × 10−5 mol l−1 RhB, 60 min | 97% | 54% for C3N4 | [45] |
g-C3N4/C60 (0.5 g/L) | Calcination (0.03 wt %) | MB, phenol | 500 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), MB (50 mL, 0.01 mM), phenol (50 mL, 5 ppm). | k1 = 1.036 h−1, k2 = 0.093 h−1 | 3.2- and 2.9-times than C3N4 | [35] |
Ag3PO4/C60 (0.5 g/L) | Precipitation (2.0 wt %) | Acid red 18 (AR18) | 400 W halogen lamp (420–780 nm, 21.5–23.0 mW cm−2), 50 mL, 6.5 × 10−5 mol/L of AR18, 60 min | 90% | 53% for Ag3PO4 | [31] |
Ag3PO4/C60 (1 g/L) | Precipitation (5.0 mg/L) | Methyl Orange (MO) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 10 mg/L | k = 0.453 min−1 | k = 0.028 min−1 for Ag3PO4 | [72] |
PbMoO4/C60 (0.4 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (0.5 wt %) | RhB | 18 W low-pressure mercury lamp as the UV light source, 50 mL of RhB (1 × 10−5 M), 2 h | 99% | 37% for PbMoO4 | [50] |
Bi2WO6/C60 (1 g/L) | Simple adsorption (1.25 wt %) | MB, RhB | 500 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 1 × 10−5 mol/L RhB or MB (100 mL) | k1 = 0.0099 min−1, k2 = 0.0454 min−1 | 5.0- and 1.5-times than Bi2WO6 | [40] |
BiOCl/C70 (1 g/L) | In-situ growth (1.0 wt %) | RhB | 500 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 10 mg/L, 30 min | 99.8% | 49.7% and 66.4% for BiOCl and P25 (TiO2) | [39] |
Bi2TiO4F2/C60 | Solvothermal method (1.0 wt %) | RhB | Visible light, 20 ppm RhB, 120 min | 93% | 65% for Bi2TiO4F2 | [73] |
CNTs/BiVO4-C60 (2 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (2.5 wt %) | RhB | 300 W xenon lamp (>420nm), 100 mL, 0.01 mmol/L RhB, 30 min | 96.1% | 74.0% for BiVO4 | [51] |
CNTs/Bi2MoO6-C60 (2 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (2.5 wt %) | RhB | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 100 mL, 0.01 mmol/L RhB, 30 min | 88.4% | 43.7% for Bi2MoO6 | [51] |
Ag3PO4/Fe3O4/C60 (1 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (5.0 wt %) | MB | 400 W mercury lamp (>420 nm), 50 mL of MB (25 mg/L), 300 min | 95% | 33% for Ag3PO4 | [74] |
TiO2/Pt-C60 (1 g/L) | Sol-gel method (7.5 wt %) | MO | 8 W halogen lamp (400–790 nm), 50 mL, 1 × 10−5 mol/L of MO | k = 3.67×10−3 min−1 | 1.58- and 16.4-times than Pt/TiO2 and TiO2 | [75] |
TiO2/Pd-C60 (1 g/L) | Sol-gel method (21 wt %) | MB | UV lamp box (8 W, 365 nm), 50 mL, 1 × 10−4 mol/L of MB | k = 0.0337 min−1 | 14-times than TiO2 | [76] |
Au/TiO2-C60 (1 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (3.25 wt %) | MO | 500W tungsten halogen lamp, 20 mL, 10 mg/L of MO, 160 min | 95% | 47% for TiO2 | [77] |
TiO2/CdS-C60 (1 g/L) | Sol-gel method (5.0 wt %) | MB | 8 W halogen lamp (400–790 nm), 50 mL, 1 × 10−5 mol/L of MB | k = 7.9×10−3 min−1 | 4.9- and 3.5-times than CdS/TiO2 and TiO2 | [56] |
TiO2/WO3-C60 (1 g/L) | Sol-gel method (3.0 wt %) | MO | 8 W halogen lamp (400–790 nm), 50 mL, 1 × 10−5 mol/L of MO | k = 4.75×10−3 min−1 | 1.66- and 21.2-times than WO3/TiO2 and TiO2 | [78] |
TiO2/CD/C60 (1 g/L) | Simple adsorption (1.5%) | MB, 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) | 84 W light sources (>420 nm), MB (10 mL, 144 μM), 10 mg/L 4-CP | k1 = 0.014 min−1, k2 = 0.036 min−1 | 2- and 4.9-times than TiO2 | [79] |
TiO2/Fullerol (1 g/L) | Wet impregnation | Procion red MX-5B | 16 solar UVA lamps (350 nm) | k = 0.0128 min−1 | 2.6-times than TiO2 | [80] |
TiO2/Fullerol (1 g/L) | Wet impregnation (1.0 wt %) | Formic acid | Hg lamp (365 nm) | k = 91.0 µmol L−1 min−1 | 1.3-times than TiO2 | [59] |
Nb-TiO2/Fullerol (0.5 g/L) | Simple adsorption | 4-chlorophenol | 300-W Xe arc lamp (>420 nm) | k = 13.9×10−3 min−1 | 3.3-times than P25 | [81] |
Photocatalyst (Additive Amount) | Synthesis Method (Fullerene Content) | Experimental Conditions | Photocatalytic Rate of H2 Generation | Enhancement Factor | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CdS/C60 (0.5 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (0.4 wt %) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 50 mL aqueous solution containing 10 vol% lactic acid and 1 wt % Pt | 1.73 mmol h−1 g−1 | 2.3 Times of pure CdS | [43] |
WO3@C60 (0.5 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (4 wt %) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), Triethanolamine (TEA) | 154 µmol h−1 g−1 | 2 times of pure WO3 | [53] |
MoS2/C60 (0.5 g/L) | Ball milling method (2.8 wt %) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 20 mL aqueous solution containing 3.5 mg Eosin Y (EY) and 1 mL TEA | 6.89 mmol h−1 g−1 | 9.3 times of ball-milled MoS2 | [54] |
g-C3N4/C60 (1 g/L) | Ball milling method (12 wt %) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 100 mL aqueous solution containing 17.5 mg EY and 5 mL TEA | 266 µmol h−1 g−1 | 4.0 times higher than pristine C3N4 | [55] |
Cr1.3Fe0.7O3-C60 (5 mg/78 mL) | Simple adsorption (3%) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 78 mL 10 vol% TEA aqueous solution | 220.5 µmol h−1 g−1 | 2 times of the Cr1.3Fe0.7O3 | [82] |
Fe2O3/C60 (5 mg/78 mL) | Simple adsorption (0.5~1 wt %) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 78 mL 10 vol% TEA aqueous solution | β-Fe2O3/C60: 1665 µmol h−1 g−1; α-Fe2O3/C60: 202.9 µmol h−1 g−1; γ-Fe2O3/C60: 169.4 µmol h−1 g−1 | β-Fe2O3: 169.4 µmol h−1 g−1; α-Fe2O3: 80.6 µmol h−1 g−1; γ-Fe2O3: 252 µmol h−1 g−1; C3N4: 82.7 µmol h−1 g−1 | [83] |
CdS/TiO2-C60 (50 mg/80 mL) | An ion-exchanged method (0.5 wt %) | Low power UV-LEDs (420 nm), 80 mL solution (0.25 M Na2S, 0.25 M Na2SO3) | 120.6 µmol h−1 g−1 | 8.5 times of CdS/TiO2 | [84] |
TiO2/C60-d-CNTs (1 g/L) | Hydrothermal synthesis (5 wt %) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), 100 mL 10 vol% TEA aqueous solution | 651 µmol h−1 g−1 | 208 µmol h−1 g−1 for pure TiO2 | [85] |
g-C3N4/graphene/ C60 (2 g/L) | Wet impregnation | Light-emitting diode (>420 nm), 50 mL solution containing 1 wt‰ Pt and 10 vol% TEA | 545 µmol h−1 g−1 | 50.8 and 4.24 times of graphene/g-C3N4 and C60/g-C3N4 | [19] |
(2TPABTz)–metal complex/C60 | Simple adsorption (2 wt %) | 300 W xenon lamp (>420 nm), an aqueous lactic acid (LA) | 2TPABTz-Cu/C60: 4.05 mmol h−1 g−1; 2TPABTz-Co/C60: 3.77 mmol h−1 g−1; 2TPABTz-Ru/C60: 6.12 mmol h−1 g−1 | 2TPABTz-Cu: 4.05 mmol h−1 g−1; 2TPABTz-Co: 3.77 mmol h−1 g−1; 2TPABTz-Ru: 6.12 mmol h−1 g−1; TiO2 (P25): 0.072 mmol h−1 g−1 | [86] |
WO3/C60@Ni3B/Ni(OH)2 2 g/L | Photo-deposition technique | 500 W xenon lamp (>420nm), 100 mL 10 vol% TEA aqueous solution | 1.578 mmol h−1 g−1 | 9.6 times of pure photocatalyst | [87] |
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Yao, S.; Yuan, X.; Jiang, L.; Xiong, T.; Zhang, J. Recent Progress on Fullerene-Based Materials: Synthesis, Properties, Modifications, and Photocatalytic Applications. Materials 2020, 13, 2924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13132924
Yao S, Yuan X, Jiang L, Xiong T, Zhang J. Recent Progress on Fullerene-Based Materials: Synthesis, Properties, Modifications, and Photocatalytic Applications. Materials. 2020; 13(13):2924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13132924
Chicago/Turabian StyleYao, Sai, Xingzhong Yuan, Longbo Jiang, Ting Xiong, and Jin Zhang. 2020. "Recent Progress on Fullerene-Based Materials: Synthesis, Properties, Modifications, and Photocatalytic Applications" Materials 13, no. 13: 2924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13132924