Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy in Less Industrialized Countries: Challenges, Opportunities, and Acceptance ^†

Abstract

This paper introduces a holistic framework to assist less industrialized countries in adopting nuclear energy (NE) for peaceful purposes considering the challenges and opportunities this entails. It underscores the pressing need for sustainable and secure energy solutions, proposing NE as a viable option. The study aims to delve into the technical, social, economic, regulatory, and policy aspects of NE’s development and its broader applications beyond conventional power generation, such as industrial processes, medical applications, agricultural advancements, and mining activities, explicitly targeting less industrialized regions. Employing a systematic review of existing practices, the paper identifies and examines barriers to NE adoption alongside strategies to mitigate these issues. Findings suggest that NE can play a pivotal role in fostering economic growth and scientific progress, potentially sparking the emergence of new industries within these countries. However, significant obstacles—namely governance, public acceptance, safety, security, development of expertise, and securing financing—pose considerable challenges. The paper concludes that a strategic and well-coordinated deployment of NE is essential for driving socio-economic growth and environmental sustainability in less industrialized countries. It emphasizes the necessity for comprehensive planning and international collaboration to fully unlock NE’s potential, advocating for a multifaceted approach to overcome the identified hurdles.

1. Introduction

Less industrialized countries, also known as developing or emerging economies, are nations with lower industrialization, income levels, and technological advancement. Their energy sectors typically depend on fossil fuels or traditional biomass, contributing to energy insecurity and environmental issues. In less industrialized countries [1], nuclear energy (NE) offers the potential for reliable and sustainable energy to support sustainable development. However, since the late 1970s, it has been closely associated with concerns about weapon proliferation and the risk of adverse incidents. However, it is imperative to recognize the substantial benefits nuclear energy has brought to society when harnessed for peaceful purposes. There is a growing acknowledgment of the significant potential for NE to play an expanded role in providing clean and abundant electricity [2].

Globally, nuclear power substantially contributes to clean electricity generation, with over 440 nuclear reactors with nearly 400 GW of capacity, 65 additional reactors under construction, and 86 planned [3], with 9% of electricity produced by nuclear reactors in 2023 [4]. The role of nuclear power is deemed crucial to achieve deep decarbonization and limit the rise in global temperature. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), meeting the necessary pace of CO₂ emission reductions outlined in the Paris Agreement poses a significant challenge [2]. Achieving these goals requires efficiency improvements, increased investment in renewable energy, and expanded utilization of nuclear power [2].

Notably, nuclear power plants emit comparable CO₂-equivalent emissions per unit of electricity to wind over their life cycle and emit about one-third of the emissions of solar power [5]. Unlike renewables, nuclear power plants maintain continuous electricity generation, providing a stable source distinct from the intermittent nature of standalone wind and PV solar, which can significantly complement intermittent renewable energy sources [6]. Additionally, small modular reactors (SMRs), such as NuScale’s VOYGR design, Argentina’s CAREM-25, which is currently under construction, and China’s ACP100, offer significant technological and financial advantages, including lower initial capital costs, scalability, and enhanced safety features, making them a promising option for broadening global access to nuclear energy [7,8].

SMRs are particularly suited for diverse applications, such as providing low-carbon heat, enabling hydrogen production, and supporting smaller or remote grids. Currently, two SMRs are in operation: Russia’s Akademik Lomonosov floating nuclear power plant (NPP), which has been operational since May 2020, and China’s HTR-PM, which began commercial operation in December 2023. Additional SMRs that are under construction include Argentina’s CAREM-25, with grid connection planned for 2028, and China’s ACP100, expected to generate 125 MW(e) by 2026 [8]. Emerging projects, such as the BREST-OD-300 in Russia and Kairos Power’s Hermes reactor in the U.S.A., further highlight the potential of SMRs to address diverse energy needs in industrialized and less industrialized nations [8,9].

This growing focus on SMRs highlights their potential as a bridge between existing nuclear technologies and future advancements. Generation IV reactor designs aim to enhance efficiency, safety, and waste management, further expanding the versatility and applicability of nuclear energy. These innovations could significantly broaden the role of nuclear power, reinforcing its position as a cornerstone of sustainable and resilient energy systems.

Beyond electricity generation, the peaceful use of nuclear energy significantly enhances human life across health, agriculture, food preservation, industry, and scientific exploration [10,11]. Nuclear technology is instrumental in cancer diagnosis and treatment, radiography, blood irradiation, and the sterilization of biological tissues. It also contributes to the scientific understanding of environmental issues like climate change.

Moreover, nuclear technology extends its benefits to agriculture and countering food diseases, and it has diverse applications in industries vital to mining, flow measurement, and leak detection. Even space exploration benefits from nuclear technology, highlighting its multifaceted utility and potential contributions to skilled workforces and innovative ecosystems. Finally, nuclear energy plants can be valuable in producing hydrogen and process heat, which can be valuable for industrial processes without carbon emissions [12].

While recognizing the myriad advantages, expanding nuclear energy deployment demands careful management due to associated risks. Social acceptance and waste management are critical considerations. While technological innovations make nuclear energy safer, public attitudes toward it have become more supportive, partly due to concerns about climate change and geopolitical events [13,14,15].

However, while NE offers significant potential for low-carbon power generation, it faces several challenges, disadvantages, and criticisms that complicate its adoption. Governance and policy challenges are a major concern, particularly in less industrialized countries, where weak regulatory frameworks and institutional capacity may undermine safety and operational standards [11]. Public safety concerns and resistance also persist due to historical accidents such as Chernobyl and Fukushima, which have heightened fears about radiation exposure and catastrophic risks [16]. Additionally, the high upfront costs of nuclear energy projects, such as standalone power projects, financial risks, and long construction times, make them economically less attractive than renewable energy alternatives [7]. Managing nuclear waste remains an unresolved issue, with no globally agreed-upon solution for safely and permanently disposing of radioactive materials [12].

Moreover, the potential for nuclear technology to be repurposed for weapons proliferation adds to geopolitical and security concerns, particularly in regions with unstable political environments [14]. These challenges are compounded by the need for skilled human resources, advanced infrastructure, and public trust, which are often limited in less industrialized nations. While innovative technologies like small modular reactors (SMRs) aim to address some of these issues, their feasibility in less developed contexts remains under question [6].

This study aims to uncover the prospects and obstacles less industrialized countries face in developing strategies and capabilities to harness nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Its primary contribution lies in presenting a comprehensive framework that integrates technical, social, economic, policy, and regulatory dimensions to address the challenges and opportunities in nuclear energy deployment. This holistic approach encompasses applications, economic advantages, spillover effects, governance, social acceptance, safety, security, technological capabilities, human resource development, finance, infrastructure, and local industry participation. While foundational works like [11] explored the nuclear fuel cycle and its economic implications, this paper expands the scope by addressing the multifaceted challenges and opportunities specific to less industrialized nations. By drawing on case studies from Brazil and other developing nations, the paper provides actionable insights into governance and stakeholder engagement, illustrating strategies to overcome socio-economic and political constraints unique to these settings. It extends the analysis of non-electric applications of nuclear technology, detailing specific benefits in health, agriculture, and industry, building on [12].

Furthermore, the paper advances discourse on public acceptance by emphasizing education, transparency, and tailored communication strategies to address public skepticism, as highlighted by [16]. It also contributes to the discussion on innovative technologies, such as small modular reactors (SMRs) and microreactors, bridging gaps identified in [6] by exploring their feasibility in regions with limited infrastructure and financial resources. This integrative and practical framework serves as a roadmap for leveraging nuclear energy to drive sustainable development, enhance energy security, and foster socio-economic growth, addressing critical gaps in the previous literature.

The study employs a systematic methodology to analyze the adoption of nuclear energy in less industrialized countries, focusing on technical, economic, social, policy, and regulatory dimensions. It begins with a review of the academic literature, international reports, and industry data to identify key barriers such as governance challenges, public safety concerns, financial constraints, and limited local expertise and capacity. Using Brazil as the primary case study, the analysis also considers experiences from other countries to explore governance practices, stakeholder engagement, and infrastructure development. The study emphasizes the role of partnerships among governments, private sectors, and academic institutions in building capacity, fostering international collaborations, and addressing public concerns. Data from sources such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the World Nuclear Association (WNA) are analyzed using qualitative and quantitative methods. These inform recommendations on implementing transparent governance frameworks, developing innovative financing models, enhancing public awareness and engagement, and advancing research into scalable technologies like small modular reactors (SMRs) and Generation IV systems. This methodology offers a structured approach to addressing the challenges and opportunities of nuclear energy adoption in less industrialized countries.

Nuclear energy (NE) is a viable pathway for sustainable development in less industrialized countries when appropriately tailored to their socio-economic, governance, and infrastructural contexts. By providing a reliable and low-carbon energy source, NE has the potential to catalyze economic growth, scientific advancement, and energy security while addressing sustainability challenges. This study explores how the integration of NE can overcome barriers such as weak regulatory frameworks, limited local expertise, and public skepticism. Through a comprehensive framework incorporating technical, economic, social, and policy dimensions, the paper examines the challenges and opportunities of NE deployment in less industrialized nations, offering actionable insights to ensure its transformative potential is fully realized.

2. The State of the Nuclear Energy Industry in the World

Since the 1950s, the utilization of nuclear energy for power generation and various peaceful applications has experienced substantial growth. As of January 2025, the global landscape includes 440 operational power reactors, collectively boasting a capacity of 400 GW [3]. In 2023, these reactors generated 2602 TWh of electricity, constituting 9% of the world’s electricity production. The reliability of nuclear power is underscored by its impressive worldwide capacity factor of 81.5%, ensuring a consistent and dependable supply of electricity 24/7 [17].

The United States leads the world in terms of NPPs with 94 operable reactors, contributing 24.3% to the global nuclear electricity capacity. Next, France had 57 operable reactors (15.8%), China had 58 operable reactors (14.3%), and Russia had 36 operable reactors (6.7%). There is a notable ongoing expansion, with 65 reactors under construction and an additional 86 in the planning stages, representing capacities of 70 GW and 83 GW, respectively; furthermore, proposals for an additional 344 reactors exist [3]. Among the reactors under construction, Asia dominates with 54 units, constituting 83% of the total MWe under construction, with China alone accounting for 47%.

Figure 1 and Figure 2 provide a snapshot of nuclear energy’s current distribution and capacity across developed and less industrialized nations, highlighting the global disparities and trends within the nuclear energy sector. Figure 1 illustrates that while 78% of global nuclear capacity is concentrated in developed nations, only 22% resides in developing countries, underscoring the challenges less industrialized nations face in adopting nuclear technology, with China holding 66% of it. Figure 2 further dissects the capacity distribution among individual countries, showing that a handful of nations, including the United States (24%), France (16%), and China (14%), dominate global nuclear energy capacity. These figures emphasize the limited participation of less industrialized countries in the nuclear energy sector and underscore the importance of addressing technological, financial, and regulatory barriers to enable broader adoption of nuclear power as a reliable and sustainable energy source.

In addition to commercial nuclear power plants, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) research reactor database, as of January 2025, reports 226 operational research reactors in 54 countries, 23 under construction, and 12 in the planning phase [18]. From the historical perspective, the World Nuclear Association notes that approximately 200 commercial, experimental, or prototype reactors, along with over 500 research reactors and several fuel cycle facilities, have been decommissioned, with some undergoing complete dismantling [19]. This comprehensive overview paints a vivid picture of the dynamic and evolving state of the global nuclear energy industry.

3. Unlocking the Potential of Peaceful Nuclear Applications

As noted, with the breadth of applications for nuclear energy, including in providing clean electricity generation [20], there is a growing need for all countries with nuclear technology to increase their existing nuclear industry and for countries that are less industrialized in nuclear technology to foster the utilization of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. The parts in this section summarize some of the main applications of nuclear energy in different sectors, which have positively impacted our life quality and productivity, and search for a fundamental understanding of our world.

For newcomers, technological transfer involves discussing cooperative frameworks between nations and international bodies like the IAEA, which support knowledge exchange and capacity building. Highlighting the establishment of Centers of Excellence and the significance of international partnerships and academic exchanges in building local expertise emphasizes the critical role of technology transfer in sustainable nuclear program development. This approach ensures operational and safety standards and fosters innovation and research within less industrialized countries, contributing to global nuclear safety and efficiency advancements.

3.1. Power Generation

Nuclear power is a significant contributor to expanding the clean energy supply and plays a crucial role in achieving the deep decarbonization imperative for limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 °C. Without an augmented role for nuclear power, effectively addressing climate change becomes considerably more challenging [3,5].

As the second most substantial source of low-carbon power, nuclear energy surpasses solar and wind, particularly in regions like Asia, where grid connections and new construction projects are burgeoning. Strategies for NPPs are expanding globally, focusing on ~1200 MW pressurized water reactors; however, diverse grids worldwide present opportunities for leveraging microreactors or SMRs. Small modular reactors (SMRs) are next-generation nuclear reactors with a power capacity of up to 300 MWe per unit, representing approximately one-third or less of the generating capacity of conventional nuclear power reactors.

Despite ongoing reactor shutdowns in the UK and the U.S., active initiatives in the U.S. aim to enhance nuclear power’s competitiveness. These efforts target extending NPP lifetimes and reducing the cost of nuclear generation [21,22,23,24]. SMRs and microreactors offer advantages such as lower initial capital investment, greater sitting flexibility for unconventional locations, and increased scalability [25].

Microreactors, designed to produce 1–20 megawatts of thermal energy, present a clean and reliable energy source applicable to various commercial uses. Beyond electricity generation, non-electric applications include district heating, water desalination, and hydrogen fuel production [26]. Microreactors are crucial in emergency responses, catering to energy needs in areas like the mining industry and less industrialized countries lacking large grid capacities [27].

Three notable features define microreactors: they are factory-fabricated, transportable, and self-adjusting for power needs. Their compact, portable nature allows easy deployment in remote areas. With fail-safe and self-adjusting mechanisms, microreactors feature fewer components, reduced maintenance requirements, and decreased operator dependence. Rapid on-site installation enables power connection within a few months and, in some cases, within weeks.

Some other benefits of microreactors include the following [28]:

• Effortless integration with renewables in microgrids.
• Deployment for emergency response, aiding power restoration in disaster-stricken areas.
• Extended core life, operating continuously for 10–20 years without refueling.
• Characteristics facilitating rapid installation and removal.
• Flexibility to be “right-sized” for specific locations and undoubtedly scalable.

For less industrialized countries or areas hard to reach by nearshoring power plants, where grid connections are much more complex, microreactors or SMRs can provide a cost-effective and reliable solution for energy needs. In addition, for emergency power, energy for remote areas like mining sectors, and even the ultimate production of hydrogen, using microreactors can be a great advantage for their power reliability.

The SMRs and microreactors are often going to upgrade fuel designs. They use high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU), which has higher enrichment, over 5% but less than 20% [29].

Several microreactor designs are being developed and may soon be ready for deployment within the next decade. These compact reactors can be small enough to be transported in a truck and have the potential to address energy challenges in various regions with diverse energy and power requirements [30].

3.2. Spillover Effects

Spillovers refer to the unintended consequences of research, innovation, and technology development that have broader economic, social, and environmental impacts beyond their original objectives. While often beneficial, enhancing productivity, fostering new industries, and promoting societal advancements, spillovers can also present challenges, such as market disruptions and workforce displacements. Recognizing and managing these spillover effects are crucial for policymakers and businesses aiming to harness the full potential of innovation for economic growth and societal well-being.

Beyond their primary role in electricity generation, nuclear reactors are versatile tools with applications in diverse sectors. Specifically, engineered reactors can supply process heat for hydrogen generators, cater to industrial processes, produce medical isotopes, and catalyze innovation in nuclear and related fields. The pursuit of nuclear energy, encompassing the supply chain, workforce development, and regulatory frameworks, yields derivative benefits in three interconnected ways:

• Innovative Ecosystem Creation: The construction and operation of nuclear reactors serve as catalysts for an innovative ecosystem. This ecosystem propels technologies, including nuclear energy, through development cycles and into the marketplace.
• Technology Transfer and Startup Drive: Technologies developed within the nuclear ecosystem find applications beyond nuclear activities, driving startups that support the broader nuclear enterprise. This cross-pollination contributes to technological advancements in various sectors.
• Inspiration for Innovations: Products derived from nuclear reactors, such as electricity, heat processes, or medical isotopes, inspire innovative uses in different fields. This sparks entrepreneurship and advancements in unrelated areas.

In 2022, the IEA underscored the crucial role of innovation in achieving climate goals [31]. It recognizes that a significant portion of emission reductions for net-zero targets by 2050 relies on technologies not yet available in the market. This includes emerging technologies like small modular reactors and microreactors. Innovations are imperative in transportation, heavy industry, and nuclear technology, and nuclear energy stands out as an enabler for achieving these climate goals.

One notable application is nuclear power electrolysis, which produces emission-free hydrogen (“pink” hydrogen). While the cost of nuclear hydrogen generation is higher than alternative “green” options, the economic advantages arise as nuclear reactors can operate steadily, utilizing excess electricity to produce and store hydrogen. This stored energy can then be utilized across various applications.

Furthermore, nuclear reactors are pivotal in providing heat for industrial processes. While present designs generate substantial low-to-medium-temperature heat, fulfilling high-temperature heat requirements (above 400 °C) necessitates advanced reactors like high-temperature gas reactors. These capabilities position nuclear energy as a vital contributor to reducing emissions in industries requiring diverse heat levels.

3.3. Industry

Nuclear techniques, particularly radioisotopes, are pivotal in various industrial applications. They are instrumental in determining material properties, assessing contamination levels, sterilizing components, monitoring industrial processes, and altering properties for innovative material development. These techniques have been extensively documented and categorized into measurements with radioisotopes, industrial radiography, ionization applications, radioactive indicators, massive irradiation, and miscellaneous applications [32,33].

Beyond electricity generation, nuclear energy offers a low-carbon alternative for producing heat and steam crucial in industrial processes, including hydrogen production. Notably, the Angra Nuclear Plant in Brazil has announced plans to produce 100 metric tons of green hydrogen daily [34,35], demonstrating nuclear energy’s potential to contribute directly to sustainable hydrogen production and decarbonization efforts.

This initiative aligns and complements broader global efforts to integrate hydrogen into sustainable energy systems, as can be carried out to explore green hydrogen production from municipal solid waste in Ghana [36] and evaluate renewable-based hydrogen production, storage, and utilization techniques in Libya [37]. These studies underscore the complementarity of nuclear and renewable energy, with nuclear providing a stable baseload and high-temperature heat to support renewable-driven hydrogen pathways, ensuring reliability and scalability in decarbonization efforts.

Nuclear power plants have proven effective in providing low-temperature heat (<200 °C) for district heating and desalination. Additionally, advanced reactors, like high-temperature gas reactors, can supply heat to replace fossil-generated heat in materials processing or contribute to hydrogen production. Ref. [38] highlights the capability of nuclear reactors to meet both low-temperature applications, such as district heating and desalination, and high-temperature requirements for industrial processes, including hydrogen production, offering a reliable alternative to fossil fuel-based systems.

SMRs and medium-sized reactors are particularly well suited for cogeneration, finding applications in industrial settings to meet diverse demands in hubs like petrochemical, mining, and agriculture complexes [39].

The IEA emphasizes that for nuclear-generated heat to compete with fossil fuels, plant investment costs must stay below 3000 USD/kWe [31]. Achieving this cost competitiveness requires more innovation and a robust supply chain. It is crucial to note that advanced nuclear reactors, such as high-temperature gas reactors, pose distinct risks, sometimes greater than those associated with light water reactors. Integrating nuclear into industrial plants introduces complexities, compounding the already intricate operations found in facilities like chemical plants [40]. This highlights the need for careful consideration and planning when incorporating nuclear technologies into industrial processes.

3.4. Health

Over the past six decades, the expansion of nuclear technology to support health, particularly in producing radioisotopes for medical applications, has shown remarkable promise and growth. Notable advancements include the historical production of Mo-99, increased fission fragment production, and a growing application of alpha and beta isotopes for therapy. The evolution of medical applications for radioisotopes has been a prominent trend.

The roots of radioisotope development trace back to the late 1930s and early 1940s, with Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) marking a significant milestone by initiating the production of Iodine-131 in 1946. The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the ascendancy of Tc-99M as the most widely used isotope for medical purposes. The annual performance of over 40 million nuclear medicine procedures indicates a ~5% annual projected growth.

The global nuclear radioisotope market, valued at USD 9.6 billion in 2016, has not only sustained this growth but exceeded expectations, reaching USD 17.1 billion in 2020. Projections indicate that the market could further escalate to USD 36.9 billion by 2027 [41]. To meet this burgeoning demand, substantial investments have been directed toward nuclear radioisotope production, employing both reactors and accelerators in the U.S. and globally. While accelerator production shows promise, nuclear reactors are expected to continue playing a pivotal role in meeting the expanding global demand for radioisotopes. The successful operation of reactors and accelerators necessitates establishing a workforce and a regulatory environment adept at managing nuclear and radiological hazards.

3.5. Agriculture

Nuclear science and technology are crucial in ensuring global access to a safe, secure, and high-quality food supply [42]. Collaborations between scientists and farmers drive innovation in agricultural practices, exemplified by applying nuclear technologies. One notable method involves exposing seeds to radiation, a process that facilitates the development of more robust plant varieties. By carefully selecting radiation-induced mutations, these varieties exhibit enhanced resilience to drought and offer increased nutritional value, ultimately contributing to improved crop yields and livestock health. Importantly, these plants are scientifically verified to be safe and free from lingering radiation.

Furthermore, nuclear techniques are instrumental in mitigating the growth and impact of harmful organisms. The Sterile Insect Technique, which employs radiation, has proven effective in reducing populations of pests that pose threats to crops and livestock. This technique stands as a testament to the constructive role nuclear science can play in sustainable and efficient agricultural practices.

3.6. Mining

Nuclear techniques have significantly boosted the efficiency of mineral exploration, mining, and processing [43]. They are invaluable tools in optimizing the entire spectrum of activities related to the exploration, extraction, and processing of raw materials, resulting in substantial energy and material savings.

In geological research, nuclear techniques play a pivotal role by facilitating age determination and providing crucial insights into the elemental distribution within different rock types. These techniques are deployed for geochemical exploration to analyze sediments and water, offering detailed information on their elemental composition to trace valuable mineralization.

In mining operations, nuclear techniques are critical in enhancing ore recovery, conducting geophysical exploration for uranium, utilizing borehole logging in oil, and assessing the feasibility of exploiting ore deposits through mineral exploration. A direct-use technique involves logging natural radioactivity (gross or gamma spectrometric), yielding valuable information about uranium, thorium, and potassium content, and providing indirect insights into the mineral composition.

These nuclear techniques have several advantages, including their rapid and straightforward implementation, even in locations where other methods may not be viable. Moreover, the ability to sample most or all of a process stream ensures more representative results than analyses based on individual samples. Additionally, the near-real-time availability of results enables the application of these measurements for online process control applications.

3.7. Economic Benefits

In pursuing carbon neutrality by 2050, nuclear energy will stand alongside renewables such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric, which will be crucial components. The IEA projects that nuclear’s share in the generation mix will remain at approximately 10% in various scenarios, with more ambitious projections suggesting a sharp increase in its contribution to reach 50% of total energy consumption in the IEA net-zero emissions (NZEs) scenario [44]. The recent energy crisis has prompted economies to reconsider nuclear energy, with growing interest in small modular reactors and microreactors for emissions reduction and power system reliability [45]. Lifetime extensions for existing reactors, revival of suspended operations, and new constructions are evident, with the most extensive nuclear reactor construction programs currently in China and India [26,46].

Nuclear energy is recognized as a potent economic stimulant, offering significant advantages such as job creation, business opportunities, human resource development, scientific advancements, environmental sustainability, and enhanced energy security. The construction and operation of nuclear power plants provide employment opportunities and business prospects for local communities and firms. Economic benefits from a nuclear development program depend on the country’s characteristics, with smaller nations potentially experiencing more substantial relative benefits.

In the U.S., the siting of nuclear facilities has primarily led to positive effects locally, including increased property values, economic expansion, more significant tax revenue, improved public services, community growth, additional jobs and employment, and school investments [47].

Studies suggest that a nuclear power plant typically creates between 400 and 1000 direct jobs per gigawatt electric (GWe) capacity, paying approximately 30% more than other local jobs [48,49]. The IAEA surveyed ten countries in 2021 to assess the economic impact of nuclear power on GDP and employment. Results indicated potential GDP growth of 0.2% to 3%, leading to billions in assets, with 10% to 70% of investments made in-country [50].

The global nuclear energy services market associated with nuclear power plants was valued at USD 7.068 billion in 2019 and is expected to reach USD 9.136 billion by 2026 [41,51]. Nuclear energy provides environmental protection, emitting only 12 g of CO2 equivalent per kilowatt-hour, placing it among the lowest-emission energy sources. It complements renewables by offering a reliable source during their production downturns, reducing vulnerability to fossil fuel price volatility, and supporting various industries, including health services and mining.

Nuclear reactors generate electricity and produce heat, supplying energy products beyond electricity, such as district and process heat, desalination, and potentially pink hydrogen production. Moreover, nuclear energy is vital in scaling up a country’s scientific, research, and industrial capacities, driving innovation, and fostering economic growth.

In summary, nuclear energy offers diverse economic advantages, including environmental sustainability [19], energy diversification, industry support, access to essential services, and the expansion of scientific and industrial capabilities.

4. Challenges in Implementing Nuclear Energy Programs for Peaceful Purposes

Implementing a NE program requires the long-term commitment of local authorities and citizenry support. A clear plan and stages should be prepared and defined well in advance to close the gaps, always putting safety and security up front and creating a proper business environment to enable the needed investments [52,53].

4.1. The Role of Governance and the State in Promoting Nuclear Energy Programs for Peaceful Purposes

In orchestrating a nuclear program, the state assumes one of three key roles: champion, regulator, or owner/operator. Depending on the specific country and its phase in the development cycle, all three roles might be necessary, even critical, for the success of nuclear energy deployment. However, implementing these roles concurrently raises potential inherent conflicts of interest that must be carefully considered.

Introducing nuclear energy into a developing country involves addressing many infrastructure issues. The IAEA’s Milestones report outlines the challenges for countries aspiring to pursue nuclear power, identifies 19 national infrastructural needs, and provides a roadmap to assess readiness for implementing nuclear energy [54]. Many of these areas involve the government and the established regulatory framework. The country is responsible for implementing a nuclear power program, necessitating a clearly defined and steadfast government role, vision, and long-term commitment.

Experts emphasize that achieving global net-zero emissions will be challenging without incorporating nuclear energy. However, establishing a nuclear energy ecosystem and attracting private-sector financing pose significant challenges without substantial government involvement in managing and mitigating associated risks. Large nuclear projects historically rely on state ownership or regulated monopoly structures to guarantee revenues and reduce investor risk [31].

The role of regulatory bodies and oversight in the governance of nuclear energy, including its supply chain, is of paramount importance and falls within the purview of the state. Due to the specialized nature and unique risks associated with nuclear energy, regulatory agencies and governance structures require individuals with highly specialized knowledge and experience. Conflicts of interest between the three roles necessitate thorough understanding and effective management.

Drawing from the lessons of the early days of the nuclear era in the United States, conflicts of interest emerged in the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)’s dual roles of promoting nuclear energy and ensuring reactor safety [55]. Separation of enabling and regulatory aspects was deemed necessary for safety and credibility in the nuclear energy enterprise. In the U.S., the AEC was split into the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), each focusing on distinct aspects of nuclear energy.

Separating functions allows the regulatory body to support future nuclear energy deployment through communication, public engagement, and cooperation with the organization promoting nuclear energy. However, the government must be capable of supporting nuclear energy if it aligns with the country’s goals while also objectively regulating its use after implementation. This dual role requires careful navigation to avoid conflicts of interest, especially in the early stages of program initiation, where expertise may be limited.

Developing robust policy and regulatory frameworks entails examining best practices from countries that have successfully updated their nuclear regulatory environments. This includes establishing independent regulatory authorities, adherence to international safety and security standards, and integrating nuclear policies within broader national energy and climate strategies.

4.2. Social Acceptance and Communication with the Public

The oil crises of the 1970s and 1980s significantly propelled nuclear power; however, incidents at Three Mile Island in the U.S. (1979), Chernobyl in Ukraine (1986), and the Fukushima meltdown in Japan (2011) triggered anti-nuclear sentiments, impeding the growth of nuclear power. Consequently, coupled with reactors reaching the end of their useful lifespan in the 1990s–2020s, many reactors were decommissioned, leading to a decrease in nuclear power’s contribution to total electricity production from 17% in 1996 to 10% today.

Global attitudes toward nuclear energy vary, ranging from strong support in some countries to outright bans in others. With a regression analysis of survey data spanning 59 countries over 27 years, Nguyen, V. and Yim, M. (2018) [16] found that public acceptance of nuclear power is positively influenced by education level and geological site suitability, while improved living standards and more democratic governments are associated with declining acceptance. Targeted communication/education and weighing social and geographic factors stand out as key recommendations for policymakers considering nuclear energy. Recently, amid escalating concerns about climate change and energy security, particularly underscored by the Russian invasion of Ukraine, governments and societal acceptance of nuclear energy are on the rise, as indicated by 2022 surveys.

In a January 2022 Pew Research Center survey, 35% of adults in the U.S. believed that the federal government should encourage nuclear power production, 26% thought it should discourage it, and 37% believed it should neither promote nor prevent it [56]. In contrast, a survey by the American Nuclear Society (ANS) conducted by Bisconti Research from 1983 to 2022 concluded that in 2022, 77% of surveyed people in the U.S. favored nuclear energy [57,58] (in answer to the question “Overall, do you strongly favor, somewhat favor, somewhat oppose, or strongly oppose the use of nuclear energy as one of the ways to provide electricity in the United States?”), demonstrating a positive trend despite past accidents [57]. This support in the U.S. surpasses that in Finland (60%) and Japan (53% in March 2022) [59,60]. A 2021 UK survey found that 39% of respondents supported or strongly supported nuclear energy, while only 17% opposed or strongly opposed its implementation in the country [61,62].

Nuclear energy is experiencing a renewed opportunity to become a prominent part of the global energy grid. However, any nuclear accident has far-reaching effects, impacting the entire industry. Solid international cooperation and adherence to gold safety and security standards are critical. Social acceptance hinges on prioritizing safety and security in successfully deploying nuclear energy and managing spent nuclear fuel.

To enhance the likelihood of social acceptance for an expanded nuclear energy program, governments should transparently communicate their objectives, including clear targets, policies, decision-making processes, and surveillance, as outlined by the Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA) in 2018 [63,64]. Recognizing the complexity and potential concerns surrounding nuclear technology, effective communication guided by a comprehensive plan can provide the public with information on benefits and risks, forming a basis for informed decision-making aligned with the government’s goals for the country.

If there is a decision to embrace NE, the government’s communication plan for the NE program must be meticulously structured to engage civil society effectively. Here is a synthesized breakdown:

➢

Audience:

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Focus messages on national and local communities, detailing the importance of NE, the plan’s steps and time frame, benefits, and risks, with a particular emphasis on how these will be managed.

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Engage local stakeholders who understand local issues, cultures, and attitudes, especially those employed in areas where facilities will be located.

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Message:

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Emphasize the demand for nuclear power, illustrating how each citizen can benefit, moving beyond the technology itself.

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Clearly explain risks and detail how they will be mitigated and managed in case of adverse events.

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Communicate strong government leadership, positioning the state, national, and local authorities at the forefront and entirely in command, elucidating their roles, benefits, and risks, along with a comprehensive plan regularly reviewed and communicated, featuring key milestones.

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Context:

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Recognize the importance of local content and the development of local businesses in enhancing the understanding and participation of local stakeholders in the nuclear industry.

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Highlight economic benefits and work opportunities to bridge communication gaps with local communities, schools, colleges, and universities.

➢

Media and Methods:

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Choose appropriate communication channels and messages to shape informed public opinion on the NE program’s costs, benefits, risks, and opportunities.

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Leverage various media, including social media, for effective communication and citizenry awareness of nuclear power.

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Share personal stories and experiences related to NE, emphasizing positive outcomes and any challenges or issues, fostering a relatable narrative.

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Encourage collaboration between industry, academia, and government to develop a shared understanding of the costs and benefits of NE, engaging in open communication with civil society.

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Outcomes:

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Build trust by addressing various issues, including technical aspects, integrity, competence, surveillance, safeguards, safety and security, NE waste management, risks, benefits, and goodwill.

4.3. Nuclear Energy Safety, Security, and Safeguards

Applying advanced nuclear technology globally requires a dedicated focus on maintaining nuclear safety and security. Throughout the history of nuclear technology, substantial progress has been made in enhancing nuclear safety and security measures. The significance of safety arises from the potent energy release inherent in nuclear fission, making it crucial to prevent accidents or misuse, underscoring the need for robust safety and security protocols. With seven decades of experience since the inception of the first nuclear power reactor, the collective knowledge gained must be retained and applied on a global scale. Moreover, advancements in fuel cycle technologies, such as thorium-based cycles, offer opportunities to enhance safety and reduce environmental risks. For instance, [65] highlights that thorium-based fuel cycles produce less long-lived radioactive waste and exhibit greater proliferation resistance than traditional uranium fuel cycles, thereby addressing key safety and security concerns. Incorporating such innovations can further strengthen nuclear safeguards and provide sustainable solutions for waste management, which remain central to the global adoption of nuclear energy. Further, in exploring innovative fuel cycles, the Seed-Blanket Unit design for thorium-based fuels offers significant advantages, including reduced long-lived waste, enhanced proliferation resistance, and the efficient use of abundant thorium resources, as demonstrated by [66], making it a promising option for less industrialized nations with limited uranium access.

The safety aspect has been enriched by lessons learned from pivotal incidents at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima. Improved technical design, construction practices, and organizational structures have enhanced safety protocols [67].

Regarding security considerations, the nuclear energy industry must implement stringent measures to prevent unauthorized access to critical equipment and materials and safeguard facilities against potential harm. Security measures include physical barriers, electronic surveillance, background checks, and well-armed security personnel [68].

The IAEA sets forth nuclear safeguards, which are technical requirements for nuclear facilities and materials. The IAEA’s objective is to independently verify a state’s commitment to ensuring peaceful nuclear applications and preventing material diversion. States accept these requirements through safeguards agreements [69]. The European Union (EU) also manages a nuclear safeguard system under the Euratom Treaty, ensuring that nuclear material in Europe is used for its intended purposes and upholding non-proliferation treaty commitments [70].

In the context of safety and security for nuclear technology, specific considerations arise with the growing development and application of SMRs and microreactors. These innovations promise to reduce carbon emissions in less industrialized countries, support emergency energy needs, and power remote sectors such as mining and transportation.

A notable microreactor company focusing on less industrialized countries and sectors like mining and emergency energy needs has designed a fully solid core utilizing advanced materials for enhanced safety and efficiency [30]. The microreactor employs UO₂ fuel and operates in the fast spectrum, eliminating the need for a moderator. Heat is conducted from the fuel pins to the solid core via thermal conduction, with liquid metal, likely bismuth eutectic, enhancing heat transport. Helium gas recirculation removes heat from the core, driving a gas turbine for electricity production.

The second major component of SMRs and microreactors is the fuel update to HALEU. With historical fuel enrichment at less than 5%, HALEU advancements to nearly 20% contribute to prolonged fuel applications, increasing safety. The US NRC has updated security requirements for HALEU fuel, emphasizing the Category II requirements for advanced reactors (US NRC, Title 10 of the U.S.A. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 73.67) [71].

In conclusion, the evolution of nuclear safety and security, coupled with innovations like SMRs and microreactors, underscores the ongoing commitment to harnessing nuclear technology responsibly and sustainably.

4.4. Nuclear Waste Management and Disposal

Nuclear technologies benefit many areas of people’s lives, such as sterilizing food and medical instruments, developing more resistant crops to pests and different environmental conditions, diagnosing and treating patients, and producing electricity and heat. Research nuclear reactors are being used in 54 countries in science and to produce radioisotopes for medical and industrial use, and 32 countries use nuclear energy for electricity production [18,72]. Like numerous other processes, several uses of nuclear technologies generate waste materials. All countries employing nuclear technologies are responsible for managing radioactive waste safely, aiming to minimize the risk it poses to people and the environment, both presently and in the future.

Depending on the material, nuclear waste can be toxic for extended periods, which requires selecting and constructing suitable sites for its storage and disposal. Some radioactive waste lasts only a few days, while others can last thousands of years. The IAEA standards have six classes for radioactive waste: high, intermediate, low, very low, very short, and waste-exempt levels. Each has different management and disposal requirements, with some, like very low-level and short-lived waste, requiring a few days of safe and secure storage, and others, like high-ionizing and long-lived waste, requiring extended, safe, and secure facilities for their storage.

An essential part of the strategy that a country designs for the peaceful uses of NE is the design and implementation of a radioactive waste management system that, with the highest safety and security standards and safeguard obligations [73], considers the safe selection, treatment and/or reprocessing, storage, and disposal of liquid, solid, and gaseous discharges from the operations of the nuclear industry to protect the people and the environment over long periods.

The IAEA helps its member states establish an appropriate safety framework for managing radioactive waste and spent fuel, including assisting in developing safety standards for pre-disposal and waste management. It also supports member states in applying these standards [74,75].

Today, and for the more complex high-level and long-lived radioactive waste, most countries have developed or plan to establish a centralized waste processing and storage facility [76], where the waste of the nuclear fuel cycle can be placed in a deep geological repository [77,78]. Geological disposal has gained international recognition as the most effective method for ensuring the long-term, secure disposal of used nuclear fuels and radioactive waste materials originating from nuclear power generation, nuclear weapons programs, medical treatments, and industrial applications [79]. However, depending on the contracts associated with the nuclear facility, size, and operation cycle, waste and spent fuel can be sent abroad for treatment, disposal, and storage [80].

4.5. Areas of Expertise

A path to access nuclear power technology for a newcomer for its implementation is through an integrated plant supplier.

However, several steps are required to reach the status of an integrated signed contract. Among them, the following stand out:

• Step 1: Select an experienced engineering/consultant firm to develop a roadmap for implementing a nuclear program.
• Step 2: Define a clear training roadmap for the professionals participating in the project’s initial phase.
• Step 3: Start, in parallel, a training program for the professionals, engineers, and experts from other fields who will participate in preparing the call for bid and selecting the integrated supplier. This phase involves substantial participation from highly skilled professionals, engineers, and consultant firms.

4.5.1. Paths to Technology

Access to technology can be implemented in two ways, as shown:

(a)

A bidding process among suppliers from their countries, such as the U.S.A., Canada, France, Korea, Japan, China, and Russia.

(b)

An agreement between countries.

In the case of Brazil, the SOE Electrobras/Eletronuclear utility oversaw the project’s implementation. In the 1960s, with the support of the consulting firm Nuclear Utilities Service—NUS—from the U.S., it prepared all the specifications and requirements. In 1970, an international bidding process selected the supplier for the first unit of the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto, Angra 1 project, a 609 MWe Westinghouse two-loop PWR [81]. In comparison, when constructing the two subsequent Angra nuclear plants in Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto, Unit 2 (1275 MWe in operation) and Unit 3 (1340 Mwe, under construction), an agreement was reached between the Brazilian and German governments [82]. A brief outline of Brazilian development of non-nuclear weapons development can be seen in [83,84].

4.5.2. Technical Capabilities

The development of capabilities for a specific nuclear segment program must start as soon as the country decides to pursue nuclear energy options.

These capacities comprise the preparation of technical professionals for the following tasks:

• Site selection.
• Licensing.
• Quality assurance.
• Engineering.
• Erection and civil construction.
• Safety, security, and safeguards.
• Operation.
• Nuclear waste management and decommissioning.

A vast array of specialists in several disciplines must be trained to develop these capacities.

The training program should consider the following:

• Development of detailed courses by the engineers/consultants that include all the systems and requirements of a nuclear power plant.
• Universities develop specific disciplines, such as nuclear engineering, nuclear physics, etc.
• Licensing training in collaboration with foreign licensing authorities, such as US NRC [85] and TÜV [86].
• Site selection, with the support of the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), EPRI Program, as an example [87].
• On-the-job training in the selected engineering and construction companies contracted by the utility owner.
• Visit nuclear power plants in construction and operation and be a trainee in these plants for an extended period.
• Solid and lengthy training program for the operations and maintenance crews in all disciplines required for plant operation.

4.5.3. Human Resources Requirements

Nuclear energy generation and uses can be an engine for creating jobs, directly and indirectly, in both professional positions and trades. A large nuclear power plant (~1000 MWe) employs between 500 and 1000 workers and drives about 4 to 5 times that much in secondary jobs (both in the supply chain and the local community) in the United States. Employment in the nuclear industry comes with higher earnings, as workers at U.S. nuclear power plants receive the highest median wage in the power sector, as detailed in the Wages, Benefits, and Change: A Supplemental Report to the Annual U.S.A. Energy and Employment Report [88]. For some jobs, a college degree is required (e.g., nuclear engineers, electrical engineers, administrator roles, etc.), but many jobs do not, such as reactor operators, technicians, and security officers.

Meeting the workforce demands requires a holistic approach that targets all parts of the workforce pipeline, attracting the future workforce into the field, providing opportunities for both vocational training and academic education, supporting re-skilling and continuing education for those in the middle of their careers, and enabling entrepreneurial training and incubation of startups to help build the nuclear ecosystem. Further, given the risks and the perceptions related to nuclear energy, it would be valuable to provide leadership training to help inform decision-makers in the public sector, manufacturing companies, the financial industry, the media, and academic institutions, among others, about nuclear energy’s benefits and risks. Retraining or “up-skilling” by providing nuclear training to technical experts in other fields (e.g., fossil fuel workers) can satisfy some of the workforce’s needs.

As noted, the need to satisfy the workforce demands that all the roles that the government may assume (regulator, champion, and owner/operator) are all equally important and will come from the same pool of individuals. For example, the technical capabilities the regulatory body needs to evaluate compliance or ensure radiological safety are the same as those of the reactor operators.

As described in detail by the IAEA, building the national capabilities to provide the needed education and training for a sustained workforce will require significant education, training, and experience by national personnel. This goal can be accomplished by recruiting experienced foreign staff to collaborate with national personnel and encouraging them to work in foreign organizations to enhance national capacity. To ensure a consistent supply of a highly skilled workforce, the country must bolster its education and training capabilities while devising a strategy to retain skilled professionals [54].

The journey towards achieving zero carbon in our world demands the collaboration of world-class nuclear technical teams comprising influential nuclear experts working alongside business and industry professionals. Building solid relationships with government facilities and private and public nuclear industries is crucial. Over the last 30–40 years, significant strides have been made in advance by technical teams to the demonstration and execution of nuclear energy reactors in energy markets, marking a pivotal moment in our history.

Nuclear technical team experts are growing to engage with the open market and investment in our energy future. Government investment must increasingly focus on integrating with the private sector to complete the demonstration of advanced technology and complete qualifications for safety and security. In addition, major nuclear countries and their governments need to develop a strategy for engaging in the growth of the private sector of nuclear technology for less industrialized countries.

In the U.S., there is a growing need for technology teams, mainly in universities and labs, to engage and partner with the private sector and investors for its energy future in what are known as non-federal strategic partnership projects (SPPs).

4.6. Access to Finance

A nuclear power plant’s financing, construction, and operation entail two distinct aspects of the financial structure [89]. On one side, there is the consideration of the structure and security of future revenues derived from the sale of electricity and capacity, power sector ancillary services [90,91], and other services and products. These additional offerings may include heating, medical isotopes used in cancer and tumor diagnosis and treatment, medical equipment sterilization, and industrial applications.

On the other side is the financial structure concerning the capital required for the plant’s construction. This capital investment is made up front, well before any revenue from generation is gained.

NE projects are highly capital-intensive projects. They have extended licensing, design, and construction periods, which can go up to ten or more years for a large reactor. The power plant will not deliver revenue until the project operates in this time frame. This is different than a solar PV plant that can be built in modules that start operation at different stages and obtain revenues within two or three years from the initial idea that was envisaged. As a result, in a nuclear energy project, securing the financial resources for the construction will require long-term revenue commitments in advance to ensure that the project, during its construction and once in operation, has a secure stream of revenues to pay back to lenders and investors, plus a proper return on the investment. The time to produce gains for an SMR or microreactor can be shortened as the reactor can be shipped and assembled on-site, much like a PV plant.

Capital cost—the cost of licensing, designing, engineering, and constructing the plant—represents a large percentage of the cost of a large nuclear reactor. The U.S. Energy Information Administration estimated that for a 2156 MWe light water nuclear plant, due to go into service in 2027, with capacity factors of 90%, the capital costs (overnight capital costs), plus fixed O&M and transmission costs, will make up 88% of total costs. As a result, the costs are (a) well above the 30% of total costs in a natural gas combined cycle, with sizes ranging from 418 to 1083 MWe and a capacity factor of 87%, where the most significant cost share goes to fuel, and (b) below the 100% of total costs in a solar or wind plant, with sizes ranging from 150 to 400 MWe and capacity factors ranging between 28% and 44% [92]. Moreover, due to the inherent characteristics of nuclear plants, which involve more extensive licensing, designing, engineering, and construction periods, the cost of capital during the construction phase accumulates to form the total cost of the plant. However, in the case of SMRs or microreactors, the capital costs required to achieve a similar electricity generation capacity can be spread over a more extended period. This is possible because countries can deploy the capacity in smaller segments, such as 120 MWe instead of 1200 MWe, allowing for incremental additions based on their specific needs and funding capabilities.

Furthermore, depending on the engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) and financial contracts in place, the capital costs can be distributed among various stakeholders in the supply chain. For instance, the burden of financing the equipment necessary to manufacture the reactor modules may fall on the plant manufacturers. This allocation of capital costs helps mitigate the financial burden on any single entity and promotes collaboration among stakeholders.

Depending on a country’s business environment, risk factors, and regulatory framework, various schemes can be implemented to ensure that investors and lenders have a reliable revenue stream to cover the capital and operational costs associated with a nuclear power plant.

In many instances, utilities responsible for operating nuclear power plants are state-owned or joint ventures with the private sector. In these cases, there is often an explicit guarantee or backup mechanism in place to secure the future revenue stream for the plant. This ensures investors and lenders have stability regarding their investments.

Additionally, countries may leverage their development agencies and multilateral development banks to facilitate syndicated loans and equity for nuclear power projects. These organizations have been instrumental in mobilizing financial resources and supporting the successful implementation of such projects.

The specific approach to securing investments and loans for nuclear power plants may vary depending on the country’s unique circumstances. Still, it typically involves a combination of government support, partnerships with private entities, and collaboration with development agencies and multilateral development banks.

The deregulation of the power industry that started in the 1980s created new markets where electricity (energy and capacity) is traded by predefined rules, with energy and not always capacity markets and sometimes payments for other preconceived ancillary services [93].

The restructuring of electricity markets has increasingly emphasized flexibility, particularly to address the intermittency of variable renewable energy (VRE) and the importance of short-term marginal and variable operational costs. This shift favors technologies that are cost-competitive on an hourly basis and can adjust operations dynamically, typically characterized by a higher proportion of variable costs relative to fixed or capital costs. In competitive markets, where technologies compete in real-time or day-ahead settings, those with greater operational flexibility—such as gas turbines—are well positioned. These technologies can strategically operate during periods of high energy prices to maximize profitability and remain offline during low-price periods. This ability to optimize participation based on real-time price signals provides a distinct competitive advantage over less flexible, capital-intensive technologies like nuclear or coal-fired power plants [94].

Chile can be seen as a showcasing the evolution of the power sector. In the early 1980s, Chile spearheaded the liberalization of power markets [93]. Presently, the main electric system in Chile boasts over 650 generation units connected and centrally managed by the Independent System Operator (ISO) of the power grid. The operation of power plants adheres to the merit order based on their short-term marginal costs. Consequently, run-of-the-river hydroelectric, modern solar photovoltaic, and wind power units are consistently prioritized due to their zero fuel costs, displacing conventional hydroelectric dams, coal, and gas turbines. Hydroelectric dams are dispatched strategically, operating with a marginal cost determined by the opportunity cost of utilizing stored water. They come into play either as peak units or to complement supply during periods when variable generation, such as solar and wind, is unavailable. Introducing new solar and wind technologies has reshaped the role of coal-fired and large hydroelectric power plants, initially designed for baseload, leading to challenges when integrating a substantial amount of new solar and wind generation into the grid. This integration can result in inefficient and variable operation or operation at a technical minimum for coal-fired and large hydroelectric power plants.

Like big hydroelectric and coal plants, nuclear power plants are sizable, capital-intensive units with extended licensing and construction periods intended to provide baseload, boasting capacity factors well above solar and wind [92]. Established large and capital-intensive power units, having recouped their initial high sunk costs, do not face the same challenges as potential new units of a similar scale. These potential units, however, must secure sufficient revenues to sustain a financing scheme covering their investment, operation, and maintenance costs over the next 30 to 40 years.

In markets where variable generation, with its lower short-term variable or marginal costs, can dominate and potentially impede the entry of substantial capital-intensive power units, establishing new projects becomes challenging. Nevertheless, there are instances where a secured revenue and operation scheme can provide the necessary assurance for these units to generate sufficient revenues to cover their investment and operational costs. A reliable mechanism guaranteeing revenue streams makes it more feasible for capital-intensive projects to proceed and operate successfully within the market.

In various regions, there is a growing reconsideration of the regulatory regime to support and sustain nuclear energy or to preserve existing nuclear power plants. Regulatory models, such as the Regulated Asset Base (RAB), are gaining increased attention due to their ability to provide long-term price or rate of return guarantees. This approach ensures that investments in nuclear power plants are adequately compensated, securing their continued operation.

A notable example is Connecticut, where officials agreed in 2019 to procure power from the state’s Millstone nuclear plant for ten years. This agreement provided Dominion Energy, the plant’s operator, with a fixed price, offering the necessary certainty to keep Millstone operational. By delivering stability and predictability in revenue generation, this regulatory model plays a crucial role in supporting the viability of nuclear power plants and encouraging their continued operation.

Various financial models can be explored to address the high upfront costs associated with nuclear projects, including public–private partnerships (PPPs), build–operate–transfer (BOT) schemes, and international financing. The Akkuyu nuclear power plant in Turkey, with its USD 20 billion investment BOT model, showcases the effectiveness of combining various public financing sources through international collaboration to fund large-scale, capital-intensive nuclear projects. Given the challenges associated with private funding, this instance underscores the critical importance of government support and the involvement of global financial institutions in securing financing for nuclear plants. Despite innovative financing models addressing the economic fundamentals of nuclear energy—such as high upfront costs and extended payback periods—it remains crucial for ensuring the long-term viability of these projects. While green bonds provide opportunities to align nuclear projects with climate finance, ongoing public concerns regarding safety and waste management hinder private investment.

Nevertheless, the Akkuyu project illustrates that a mix of financing strategies can facilitate progress in the nuclear sector amid financial hurdles. A diverse array of public financing mechanisms is vital for pushing forward nuclear initiatives, pending significant changes in technical and economic conditions. This case highlights the possibilities and persistent challenges in funding sophisticated nuclear infrastructure [95].

4.7. Building Critical Nuclear Energy Infrastructure

Developing NE necessitates thorough government planning and a solid commitment to building essential infrastructure. This involves outlining a comprehensive business model encompassing procurement, engineering, construction, and operation. Additionally, the roles of the government, private sector, local industry, and engagement with the site and surrounding region should be clearly defined.

Government planning is crucial in establishing the necessary frameworks and policies to facilitate the successful implementation of NE projects. This includes strategic decisions regarding site selection, regulatory processes, licensing requirements, and environmental considerations. The government’s role also involves setting clear objectives, ensuring safety and security standards, and establishing long-term energy plans incorporating NE as a significant component.

Collaboration with the private sector is vital, as it brings expertise, technical know-how, and financial resources. Partnerships with local industries can drive economic growth, job creation, and technology transfer. Engaging with the site and regional stakeholders, such as local communities, environmental groups, and other relevant parties, is essential to address concerns, ensure transparency, and foster public acceptance.

Governments can establish the foundation for successful NE infrastructure development by delineating a robust business model and distinctly defining the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders. This approach promotes effective collaboration, minimizes risks, and establishes a sustainable path toward utilizing nuclear energy.

4.7.1. Development of Local Industry

Before the bidding process, several crucial decisions must be made, including developing local industry capabilities and participation [96]. The case of the Angra nuclear power plant in Brazil highlights two contrasting approaches to fostering local capabilities:

• Angra nuclear power plant—Unit 1:

The utility and the primary supplier contract followed a lump-sum arrangement and an engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) contract. As a result, the decision-making power rested with the contractor, who would naturally prioritize their interests. Consequently, local participation in this project was limited and reached 6% [81].

• Angra nuclear power plant—Unit 2:

Unit 2 is currently in operation, and Unit 3 is currently under construction and is part of a more extensive agreement with Germany encompassing eight units [82,97,98]. In the contracts for Units 2 and 3, a crucial requirement was imposed to increase the participation of the Brazilian industry.

In response to this requirement, large companies were established and aligned with the objectives of promoting local industry participation. Small and medium-sized industries revitalized their manufacturing capabilities, often partnering with foreign suppliers. Notable examples include Nuclebrás Equipamentos Pesados S.A. (Nuclep), which built a new plant dedicated to manufacturing heavy equipment like reactor vessels, steam generators, and pressurizers. Indústrias Nucleares do Brasil—SA (INB) [99] also constructed a new facility to produce nuclear fuel [100].

Through this approach, the participation of local suppliers in Unit 2 reached 67%, showcasing a substantial increase compared to Unit 1. Looking ahead, for Unit 3, which is scheduled to begin operations in 2028, an even higher local participation rate of 70% is anticipated.

These contrasting cases exemplify the importance of deliberate decision-making and contractual arrangements that prioritize the development of local industry capabilities. By fostering collaboration and promoting investments in local manufacturing, countries can significantly increase domestic participation in nuclear projects, leading to economic growth and technological advancement.

Argentina represents another case of successful development of local industry. While nuclear energy primarily served peaceful electricity generation, there were contemplations of military applications, such as a nuclear submarines, though these ideas never materialized. Government policy emphatically prioritized nuclear self-sufficiency, rejecting external controls like those imposed by the IAEA. Despite the explicit focus on peaceful applications, Argentina’s nuclear program aroused international suspicions [101].

Argentina operates three nuclear reactors, contributing approximately 7% to its electricity production. The inception of its commercial nuclear power program dates to 1974, with the initiation of the first operational reactor. Argentina is advancing in nuclear technology with the construction of CAREM25, a small power reactor prototype designed locally, and plans are underway to construct another reactor with the facilitation of the China National Nuclear Corporation [102,103,104,105]. The country’s nuclear energy ambitions are receiving a significant boost with a bold plan to build small modular reactors (SMRs) to meet rising energy demands and support AI development, utilizing its uranium reserves for domestic use and exports to position itself as a global leader in nuclear energy. The CAREM25 project, Argentina’s first domestically designed small modular reactor, continues to develop, while collaboration with CNNC for the Atucha III nuclear power plant will proceed using China’s Hualong One technology. The administration is focused on harnessing nuclear energy as a core component of the nation’s future, emphasizing the country’s abundant natural resources and skilled workforce, and aiming to transform Argentina into a global energy powerhouse and support technological advancements, particularly in AI.

4.7.2. Regional Development

In less industrialized countries, it is common for nuclear power plant sites to be located away from densely populated areas. Following this approach, the selected location and its surrounding region must undergo development and the implementation of essential infrastructure. This includes, but is not limited to, housing and living quarters for the personnel involved in the plant’s construction and operation and establishing healthcare facilities, schools, telecommunication and electrical systems, shopping centers, recreational areas, sports facilities, and access roads.

Additionally, it is crucial for the utilities involved to support the local communities, contribute to the development of the local workforce, and improve the infrastructure of nearby cities. By creating a supportive and safe environment for the local population and any incoming personnel, the utilities can foster a sense of community and ensure the well-being of those residing near the nuclear power plant. This includes providing employment and skills training opportunities and contributing to the overall growth and enhancement of the local infrastructure.

4.7.3. Future Energy Demands and Large Reactors for Technological Needs

The rising electricity demand for power data centers, particularly for generative AI, has recently intensified interest in nuclear power due to its scalability and high-capacity factor. A notable example is Microsoft’s recent consideration of a partnership with Exelon to restart the Three Mile Island reactor to generate electricity for AI operations [106]. This trend may drive a renewed interest in larger reactors—where countries like South Korea, Russia, and China excel—as they provide economies of scale for industries requiring substantial energy, such as data centers. In contrast, SMRs, though flexible and suitable for smaller grids, are still under development and have not been approved or are in the commercial stage.

4.7.4. Engineering, Construction, and Operation

Developing the local labor force is a crucial aspect to consider when implementing a nuclear project. This development should encompass various technical disciplines and primary services, and to ensure its success, specific requirements should be established during the preparation of the bidding process. The bidding documents and subsequent contracts should outline the milestones for the local labor force, including procedures, training programs, technology transfer, and engineering, construction, and commissioning activities.

An exemplary case highlighting the achievements in local labor force development is Unit 2 of the Angra nuclear power plant. The participation of the local labor force in various areas was as follows:

• Civil Construction: 100%.
• Engineering: 42%.
• Mechanical and Electrical Erection: 84%.
• Commissioning: 26%.

The overall local content participation, considering supply and services, reached 67%; all percentages refer to costs. This successful development of the local labor force in Brazil led the country to become an exporter of services and goods to the international nuclear market.

By prioritizing the involvement and training of local workers, a nuclear project can have significant socio-economic impacts, fostering job creation, skills development, and technology transfer. This approach benefits the project itself and contributes to the overall growth and capabilities of the local workforce, positioning the country as a competitive player in the global nuclear industry.

4.8. Emerging Developments in Nuclear Energy Adoption in Less Industrialized Countries

Bangladesh and the UAE are recent entrants into the nuclear energy sector, with Bangladesh’s Rooppur and the UAE’s Barakah nuclear power plants offering valuable insights into overcoming challenges in transitioning to nuclear energy. These examples underscore the critical role of international cooperation, financing mechanisms, and public acceptance strategies. The Rooppur project, developed in partnership with Russia’s Rosatom, highlights the importance of technical and financial support from established nuclear nations, while Barakah’s success, managed by Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO), demonstrates the necessity of adherence to stringent safety and operational standards. Both cases reflect the significance of robust project management, comprehensive regulatory oversight, and tailored approaches to address the socio-political, financial, and technological hurdles less industrialized countries face. Additionally, they provide lessons in public engagement, implementing safety protocols, and integrating nuclear energy into national power grids [107,108].

Other recent advancements and initiatives include the following:

• South Africa: In December 2023, South Africa announced plans to build new nuclear power stations to address its persistent energy crisis. The project has entered the bidding phase and is projected to take over a decade to complete. However, the initiative has faced criticism over allegations of corruption and concerns about financial feasibility [109].
• Nigeria: In September 2024, Nigeria signed an agreement with China under the Belt and Road Initiative, focusing on nuclear energy development and human resource capacity building. This partnership aims to diversify Nigeria’s energy mix and address chronic energy shortages [110].
• Ghana: In August 2024, Ghana signed an agreement with a U.S.-based developer to deploy a NuScale VOYGR-12 small modular reactor (SMR), marking its entry into nuclear power. This milestone leverages SMR technology to address energy needs in a scalable and environmentally friendly manner [111].
• Rwanda: In September 2023, Rwanda partnered with Canadian–German company Dual Fluid Energy Inc. to construct its first small-scale nuclear reactor to test an innovative approach to low-carbon energy. This initiative supports Rwanda’s broader goals of advancing sustainable energy technologies and enhancing energy independence [112].
• Zimbabwe: In July 2023, Zimbabwe and Russia signed an intergovernmental agreement to cooperate on the peaceful use of nuclear energy, focusing on developing small modular reactors (SMRs) tailored to Zimbabwe’s energy needs. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has expressed willingness to assist Zimbabwe in building the necessary nuclear infrastructure and ensuring compliance with international safety standards. Zimbabwe’s plan to achieve 4000 megawatts of power capacity by 2035 includes integrating nuclear energy with renewable sources such as solar, wind, and mini-hydro, aiming for a diversified and sustainable energy mix. However, establishing nuclear power in Zimbabwe faces high costs, waste disposal, and potential security risks. Additionally, concerns about corruption in large infrastructure projects highlight the need for transparency and robust regulatory frameworks [113].

These developments illustrate the growing interest in nuclear energy across less industrialized nations, each adopting approaches tailored to their specific contexts. Despite governance challenges, South Africa’s large-scale nuclear ambitions underscore the potential for long-term solutions. Nigeria and Ghana showcase the strategic use of international partnerships to foster nuclear development, while Rwanda and Zimbabwe highlight the opportunities presented by small modular reactors (SMRs) for addressing energy needs at more minor scales while shaking the geopolitical world order [114]. Collectively, these initiatives demonstrate the dynamic evolution of nuclear energy as a pivotal component of sustainable energy transitions in the Global South, balancing economic growth, energy security, and environmental sustainability while challenging existing geopolitical dynamics.

4.9. Integrated Framework for Peaceful Nuclear Energy Deployment

Figure 3 presents a comprehensive framework synthesizing the challenges, opportunities, cross-sectoral benefits, strategic recommendations, and research directions related to deploying peaceful nuclear energy in less industrialized countries. This visual representation highlights the interconnected nature of these elements, showcasing how addressing governance issues, public acceptance, and financing barriers (challenges) can unlock opportunities for capacity building, industrial growth, and renewable integration. The cross-sectoral benefits emphasize nuclear energy’s broader applications, including power generation, healthcare advancements, agricultural improvements, and industrial processes. Strategic recommendations focus on actionable pathways, such as implementing transparent governance frameworks, adopting flexible financing models, and fostering public engagement. Finally, research directions underscore the importance of advancing SMRs, Gen IV reactors, hybrid nuclear–renewable systems, nuclear waste management, and safety protocols. This framework aims to provide policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers with a structured approach to leveraging nuclear energy to catalyze sustainable development in less industrialized nations.

5. Conclusions and Policy Implications

This paper presents a comprehensive framework to guide less industrialized nations in adopting nuclear energy (NE) for peaceful purposes. The study emphasizes NE’s pivotal role in fostering economic growth, scientific advancement, and sustainable development by integrating technical, economic, social, policy, and regulatory dimensions. The analysis broadens the discourse on NE’s applications, highlighting its potential in industrial processes, agriculture, healthcare, and energy-intensive sectors such as hydrogen production. Innovative solutions, including small modular reactors (SMRs) and microreactors, are identified as scalable and cost-effective options to address the infrastructure and financial constraints often faced by these nations [7,8,10,20].

Section 3 and Section 4 delve deeper into NE’s applications and challenges, underscoring how advanced technologies like SMRs can complement renewable energy by providing reliable baseload power and enabling decarbonization efforts [6,10,11,12,16,34]. Building on prior studies [1,10,11,16], the paper highlights the importance of robust governance frameworks, international collaborations, and stakeholder engagement. The case study of Brazil is complemented by insights from other countries, such as Argentina and Bangladesh, to illustrate effective practices in infrastructure development and fostering public acceptance [16,57].

The study integrates data from authoritative sources, including the World Nuclear Association and the International Atomic Energy Agency [3,18], to provide actionable recommendations for overcoming barriers such as financial constraints, safety concerns, and limited local expertise. Key strategies include implementing transparent governance frameworks, developing innovative financing models, advancing capacity-building initiatives, and fostering public awareness to enhance NE acceptance and integration into national energy systems.

This study synthesizes existing data and frameworks and highlights key findings in the context of previous studies and the working hypotheses. By exploring case studies and integrating insights from authoritative sources like the IAEA and WNA, the analysis underscores the multifaceted applications of NE and its potential to complement renewable energy sources in achieving decarbonization goals [1,2,5,6,12,20]. While the study draws heavily on case studies to contextualize findings, this approach provides valuable insights into real-world challenges and practices, offering a foundation for developing more localized and region-specific models for NE adoption. Future research should explore integrating advanced technologies, such as Generation IV reactors and green hydrogen systems, to address public acceptance challenges and governance barriers. These efforts will deepen the understanding of NE’s role in sustainable development and expand its practical adoption in less industrialized nations.

By addressing these critical areas, nuclear energy can solidify its role as a cornerstone of sustainable energy systems, particularly in less industrialized nations, where tailored strategies can unlock its transformative potential. Nuclear energy can catalyze economic growth, scientific advancement, and energy security while supporting sustainability goals when aligned with socio-economic, governance, and infrastructural contexts. Nuclear energy offers a viable pathway for these nations to overcome energy challenges and contribute meaningfully to a resilient global energy transition through its ability to complement renewable energy sources and provide reliable, low-carbon power.