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Energies
Volume 18
Issue 15
10.3390/en18154123
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

A Stackelberg Game for Co-Optimization of Distribution System Operator Revenue and Virtual Power Plant Costs with Integrated Data Center Flexibility

by
Qi Li
1,
Shihao Liu
2,
Bokang Zou
3,
Yulong Jin
3,
Yi Ge
4,
Yan Li
4,
Qirui Chen
1,*,
Xinye Du
1,
Feng Li
2 and
Chenyi Zheng
5
1
School of Electrical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
2
School of Electrical and Automation Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China
3
NARI Technology Co., Ltd., Nanjing 211106, China
4
State Grid Jiangsu Economic Research Institute, Nanjing 210000, China
5
College of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(15), 4123; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154123 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 30 June 2025 / Revised: 29 July 2025 / Accepted: 31 July 2025 / Published: 3 August 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

The increasing penetration of distributed renewable energy and the emergence of large-scale, flexible loads such as data centers pose significant challenges to the economic and secure operation of distribution systems. Traditional static pricing mechanisms are often inadequate, leading to inefficient resource dispatch and curtailment of renewable generation. To address these issues, this paper proposes a hierarchical pricing and dispatch framework modeled as a tri-level Stackelberg game that coordinates interactions among an upstream grid, a distribution system operator (DSO), and multiple virtual power plants (VPPs). At the upper level, the DSO acts as the leader, formulating dynamic time-varying purchase and sale prices to maximize its revenue based on upstream grid conditions. In response, at the lower level, each VPP acts as a follower, optimally scheduling its portfolio of distributed energy resources—including microturbines, energy storage, and interruptible loads—to minimize its operating costs under the announced tariffs. A key innovation is the integration of a schedulable data center within one VPP, which responds to a specially designed wind-linked incentive tariff by shifting computational workloads to periods of high renewable availability. The resulting high-dimensional bilevel optimization problem is solved using a Kriging-based surrogate methodology to ensure computational tractability. Simulation results verify that, compared to a static-pricing baseline, the proposed strategy increases DSO revenue by 18.9% and reduces total VPP operating costs by over 28%, demonstrating a robust framework for enhancing system-wide economic and operational efficiency.
Keywords: distributed renewable energy; virtual power plant (VPP); data center; dynamic pricing; flexible load scheduling; distributed renewable energy distributed renewable energy; virtual power plant (VPP); data center; dynamic pricing; flexible load scheduling; distributed renewable energy

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Li, Q.; Liu, S.; Zou, B.; Jin, Y.; Ge, Y.; Li, Y.; Chen, Q.; Du, X.; Li, F.; Zheng, C. A Stackelberg Game for Co-Optimization of Distribution System Operator Revenue and Virtual Power Plant Costs with Integrated Data Center Flexibility. Energies 2025, 18, 4123. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154123

AMA Style

Li Q, Liu S, Zou B, Jin Y, Ge Y, Li Y, Chen Q, Du X, Li F, Zheng C. A Stackelberg Game for Co-Optimization of Distribution System Operator Revenue and Virtual Power Plant Costs with Integrated Data Center Flexibility. Energies. 2025; 18(15):4123. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154123

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Qi, Shihao Liu, Bokang Zou, Yulong Jin, Yi Ge, Yan Li, Qirui Chen, Xinye Du, Feng Li, and Chenyi Zheng. 2025. "A Stackelberg Game for Co-Optimization of Distribution System Operator Revenue and Virtual Power Plant Costs with Integrated Data Center Flexibility" Energies 18, no. 15: 4123. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154123

APA Style

Li, Q., Liu, S., Zou, B., Jin, Y., Ge, Y., Li, Y., Chen, Q., Du, X., Li, F., & Zheng, C. (2025). A Stackelberg Game for Co-Optimization of Distribution System Operator Revenue and Virtual Power Plant Costs with Integrated Data Center Flexibility. Energies, 18(15), 4123. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154123

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