Determinants of Ecological Decisions of Users of Single-Family Houses in Poland in the Field of Energy Generation

Abstract

Since the early years of the 21st century, there has been a clear critique of the diotic way of farming in the international scientific arena, emphasizing that the existing models of economic development are exacerbating social inequalities and overexploiting natural resources. At the same time, the literature promotes the implementation of a new way of farming that takes into account environmental, social, and economic concerns. We have brought together new methods and ways of farming in these areas into one broad concept, called the conclusion of sustainable development. Within this concept, particular emphasis has been placed on sustainable energy development, the intensive development of technologies based on renewable energy sources, and the advancement of end-user awareness of modern technologies. The aim of this paper was to identify the factors that determine the ecological attitude of users of single-family houses in Poland when making strategic energy decisions related to the choice of heating devices in a household. To solve this research problem, the authors conducted a nationwide survey on a representative sample of single-family house users. In turn, the results were analyzed using log-linear analysis. The results showed that the determinants of the ecological nature of such energy decisions are primarily the age of the house users and their level of education. It was found that younger people are significantly more likely to think about ecology when making decisions related to how a building is heated than older people. In addition, people with a higher level of education are more likely to think about ecology when making such decisions than those with a lower level of education. Findings showed that the gender of the occupant of a single-family house, as well as the size of the town in which the building is located, have no significant impact on the ecological nature of decisions related to the choice of the method of obtaining energy for home heating. It was also shown that territorial variation, i.e., the region of the country, had no effect on this issue. The identification of socio-demographic determinants of the ecological nature of decisions related to the choice of heating devices in single-family houses in Poland fills the research gap and thus contributes to the literature in this area.

1. Introduction

Since the beginning of the 21st century, a clear critique of the diotic way of farming has been emerging in the international scientific arena, emphasizing that existing models of economic development exacerbate social inequalities and overexploit natural resources [1,2]. At the same time, the literature has promoted the implementation of a new way of farming that takes into account environmental, social, and economic aspects [3,4,5]. The area of activities related to the production of energy is an important element in the overall area of activities for sustainable development. Many countries, wanting to implement the goals assumed in the concept of sustainable development, have created a new concept of energy development and assess their energy systems in terms of compliance with the sustainable development goals, which in turn become not only a theoretical solution, but also a real tool for creating human development [6].

Sustainable energy is the practice of use of energy sources that cause little damage to the environment and human health. Energy is a system of connections enabling the acquisition, transport, and transfer of energy to final consumers [7]. In turn, the concept of sustainable energy development refers to the process of sustainable, secure, and efficient provision of energy for sustainable development [8,9]. The energy transition, on the other hand, is about moving towards sustainable economies through renewable energy sources, saving energy, and increasing energy efficiency, in line with the principle of sustainable development [10,11].

The energy that powers every household has its source. The growing awareness of environmental protection has forced the use of such sources that respect the principles of sustainable development. Many countries are developing a new concept for energy development and assessing their energy systems for compliance with the SDGs [12]. The concept of sustainable development is gaining more and more popularity, becoming not only a theoretical solution, but also an actual tool for creating human development. In today’s world, the perception of problems in the access to resources and the degradation of the natural environment as some of the main threats to economic development is increasing. The application of this concept in practice makes it necessary to describe it for individual economic sectors [13].

The authors point out that the issue of sustainability concerns not only the generation of energy, but also its consumption. When analyzing a sustainable approach to energy, one should take into account not only the problem of sustainability, but also the integration of social and environmental needs into economic development [14].

The concept of sustainability is widely known. Its implementation causes many doubts. One of the manifestations of this is the emergence of the concept of sustainable energy. However, it is difficult to find a broad explanation of what this concept is. It is usually equated with the use of renewable energy sources, but this approach should be considered too simplistic [15].

In the literature, definitions of sustainable energy are based on the definition of the concept of sustainable development, which shows that it is a development that meets the needs of current generations, without detracting from the ability of future generations to meet their needs [16].

Based on the existing knowledge in the literature, the authors combined the created new methods and ways of farming into one broad concept, called the sustainability conclusion. Within this concept, special emphasis was placed on sustainable energy development, intensive development of technologies based on renewable energy sources, and raising end-user awareness of modern technologies. This determined the research problem that the authors aim to solve in this paper. The research problem is formulated in the form of a question: what factors determine the ecological approach of users of single-family houses in Poland when making decisions related to the way of heating the house?

The theoretical and practical significance of the conducted research involves the indication of the socio-demographic characteristics describing the users of single-family houses. They are the determinants of the decisions related to the way they heat their houses [17].

An example of complementary research is the study [18], where the level of openness of households to innovative ecological technologies was analyzed. It has been shown that photovoltaic panels and heat pumps are the most frequently indicated sources of green energy. The research showed a relationship between the range of choices made and the area and volume of the building, as well as their implications regarding the potential and scale of future enhancement of the RES dimension by small individual consumers.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 describes the characteristics of the concept of sustainable development, followed by a literature review on the topic under consideration in Section 3. Section 4 presents the material and methods used in the study, while Section 5 analyses the empirical results. The last two sections discuss the research significance, and provide a summary, suggestions, shortcomings, and prospects.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Sustainable Energy

Sustainable energy is the authorization of energy sources that cause little damage to the environment and human health. Energy is a system of links enabling the acquisition, transport, and transfer of energy to final consumers [19].

A sustainable energy system should be based on renewable energy technologies, including renewable fuel transport, renewable heat, demand reduction, and use efficiency [19].

From the point of view of the concept of sustainable development, it seems more important to create an entire energy system that meets the requirements of this concept, rather than just a system of sources of its acquisition, because issues related to efficient energy management are as important as its production [20].

On the basis of the defined research problem, four research hypotheses were put forward.

The first (H1) hypothesis is that the gender of the user does not influence the ecological approach when deciding how to obtain energy in the household.

In turn, the second (H2) indicates that the age of users determines their ecological approach to the method of heating a single-family house. The third (H3) suggests that the size of the village has an impact on the ecological approach to obtaining energy in the household.

The last, the fourth (H4), says that education is an important factor determining the consideration of ecological factors when deciding on the choice of heating device. In order to verify the four research hypotheses, the overriding goal of the work was determined, which is to investigate, using log-linear analysis, what factors have a significant impact on the ecological attitude of users of single-family houses in Poland when making decisions related to the choice of heating devices in a household.

By verifying these hypotheses, an existing research gap is filled. Our work presented in this article has contributions and novelty that are summarized in a twofold way. Firstly, the authors combined existing new methods and ways of economic governance in the literature into one broad concept, called the sustainability conclusion. The literature identifies a number of models promoting the implementation of a new way of economizing that takes into account environmental, social, and economic aspects. However, they analyze from the side of the situation of enterprises and economic development, which increases social inequalities, or the degree to which the potential of the environment is exploited, indicating that natural resources are being overexploited. Within the framework of the concept created by the authors, particular emphasis was placed on sustainable energy development, intensive development of technologies based on renewable energy sources, and raising end-user awareness of modern technologies. Secondly, in order to address the research problem set out in the paper, the authors conducted a nationwide survey on a representative sample of single-family house users. For Poland, no such studies have been carried out to date. Using log-linear analysis, the authors identified the determinants of the ecological nature of the energy decisions made by households regarding their choice of heating devices.

The authors point out that sustainable energy is defined as the conversion of primary energy into electricity and heat and its delivery to the end user in a way that allows meeting the needs of current and future generations, taking into account the economic, social, and environmental aspects of human development [21]. It is worth stressing that on the basis of this term, issues related to sustainable energy consumption should be treated as an element of energy policy, not energy itself [22].

Recent changes in the world indicate accelerated technological development, covering virtually all aspects of human life. This development has resulted in a rapid improvement in living conditions in most countries. It turns out that this development would not be possible without energy, and the increasing demand for energy has led to the discovery of new energy sources and the development of new energy technologies [23]. The transformations of the world, indicated successively by the oil age, the atomic age, and the race for gas [24] and a renewable future [22], indicate major technological progress, where coal has been firmly in the background, playing a particularly important role in guaranteeing security of supply and price stability. Fuel price stability is the foundation of global economic prosperity and political stability [25].

The authors of this paper indicate that it seems natural that the most important fossil fuels, including coal [26], will also dominate in the foreseeable future, with major renewable energy sources (e.g., wind [27], solar energy, and biomass [28]) developing faster while costs decrease. Renewable energy [29,30,31,32] will undoubtedly become an integral and important component of the future structure of energy consumption, although its wider expansion requires conditions and temporality. In the foreseeable future, renewable media can only be a complement to conventional sources [33]. The phenomena of market liberalization in energy, reforms, and competition emphasize the economics of energy supply. It can be pointed out that neither energy security [34] nor ecological aspects of energy production and use are prerequisites for economic decisions. Market decision-making is often based on short-term planning, while in order to guarantee sustainable energy development in the long term, more emphasis is needed on the analysis of the full life cycles of systems [35]. Policy decisions shaping the future of the energy sector should be based on credible and comprehensive research results and facts, not on wishful thinking. Coal, which is the cheapest fuel, has an unimaginable potential to become the surest and most readily available source of energy [26,36,37].

Global energy policy seems to underestimate the contribution that coal can make to sustainable development through its economic availability and acceptability. Therefore, there is a need to level the playing field for coal in international energy policy. It is recommended that international energy policy should place coal emissions in a more sustainable perspective [20].

An analysis of electricity generation processes indicates that, despite the dominant focus of climate debates on reducing carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions, some fossil fuels considered alternatives to coal—such as natural gas and crude oil—may generate comparable or, in certain cases, even higher emission burdens [38]. Estimates suggest that between 2001 and 2025, the annual increase in CO₂ emissions from coal combustion (1.1 billion tons) will be lower than that from natural gas (1.3 billion tons) or oil (1.5 billion tons). Accordingly, it is recommended to avoid policy instruments that disproportionately penalize coal, in favor of promoting its more efficient and low-emission use. This includes mechanisms such as Joint Implementation, the Clean Development Mechanism, and emissions trading systems [39].

An equally important area of action involves supporting the transfer of knowledge regarding carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. This support should take the form of research funding and facilitating access to clean technologies in developing countries. International institutions such as the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the World Bank’s Prototype Carbon Fund are poised to play a critical role in this process [40]. In parallel, the implementation of stricter air pollution emission standards (including SO₂, NOₓ, and particulate matter) in newly constructed power plants is being advocated. Such measures would not only reduce overall emissions but also mitigate uncertainties in the design of innovative coal-based technologies. Furthermore, the development of transparent information systems concerning occupational health and safety standards in the coal mining sector is emphasized, as well as the integration of consulting and management services within ongoing efforts to liberalize energy market access [41].

At the microsocial level, research on the environmental attitudes of single-family homeowners highlights the importance of a range of factors influencing pro-environmental decisions. The literature emphasizes the role of environmental awareness, the availability of financial incentives (e.g., grants and tax relief), initial investment costs, projected savings, and social pressure. Additional key factors include social prestige and the pursuit of energy autonomy. Empirical findings also underscore the influence of personal values, attitudes toward climate change, and trust in institutions that promote renewable energy technologies.

Despite the growing body of scientific literature, significant research gaps persist, limiting the comprehensive understanding of the determinants of ecological decision-making at the household level:

• Lack of a holistic approach: The vast majority of studies focus on individual technologies (e.g., photovoltaic systems), which fails to reflect the actual complexity of energy decisions, often involving multiple solutions or hybrid systems [20,21,22].
• Neglect of the end-user perspective: A predominant focus on macroeconomic and statistical analyses often results in the marginalization of individual motivations, experiences, and emotions accompanying homeowners’ energy-related decisions [15,16].
• Lack of longitudinal studies: The absence of long-term studies hinders the identification of changes in pro-environmental attitudes over time and limits the assessment of the durability of supporting interventions [7,8].
• Overly general cultural and regional analyses: Many studies adopt a universalist perspective, overlooking the socio-cultural and regional specificities that significantly influence energy and environmental attitudes [25,26,27,28].
• Minimal exploration of social relationships: Social factors are frequently treated peripherally, leading to an underestimation of the influence of neighborhood opinions, community dynamics, and local opinion leaders on individual decisions.
• Fragmentation in interdisciplinary approaches: Although interdisciplinarity is often declared, many studies are confined to a single discipline, thereby limiting the potential for integrated interpretations that span social, economic, technical, and environmental sciences [42].

Recognizing these research shortcomings points to the necessity for further in-depth and integrated studies that incorporate both rational and emotional aspects of ecological decision-making. Advancing knowledge in this area may contribute to the development of more effective public policy instruments and support a sustainable energy transition at the local level.

This study analyzed 108 publications concerning the level of household openness to the adoption of innovative pro-environmental technologies. Among the most frequently indicated solutions were photovoltaic panels and heat pumps, identified as the primary sources of renewable energy. The findings revealed a correlation between the range of technological choices made and the surface area and volume of residential buildings. This relationship has significant implications for assessing the potential and scale of renewable energy development among individual end-users.

The authors of this article indicate that the projected increase in energy demand, especially in developing countries, will result in a significant increase in CO₂ emissions. The coal industry and manufacturers of energy equipment are making great efforts to use higher efficiency technologies in the long term and to bring carbon capture technology to technical and economic maturity within the next years [43].

Sustainable energy indicates high energy efficiency and renewable energy, which are considered to be the two pillars of a sustainable energy policy. Both strategies must be developed simultaneously to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions and other pollutants. Energy efficiency is key to slowing energy demand growth so that the growing supply of clean energy can result in deeper reductions in fossil fuel use [44]. If energy consumption grows too fast, the development of renewable energy will not keep pace with this goal. Similarly, if clean energy sources do not become widely available, sluggish demand growth will not sufficiently translate into reductions in overall carbon emissions. It is also necessary to reduce the share of coal in energy sources. Therefore, a sustainable energy policy requires greater commitments in terms of both efficiency and renewables [19].

2.2. Sustainable Development of Energy

The concept of sustainable energy development refers to the process of sustainable, secure, and efficient provision of energy for sustainable development [22]. The model that favors the creation of a set of indicators monitoring this development includes various types of systems. By contrast, the Eurostat indicators used at the EU level do not provide sufficient information, in particular on studies and comparisons of the social dimension. Monitoring of sustainable energy development should be very functional in assessing the implementation of the Strategy for Responsible Development. The set of indicators proposed in this strategy to assess its progress is very one-sided and limited. The use of a set of indicators that comprehensively capture energy development can contribute to defining this development in a more sustainable way [45].

Monitoring sustainable energy development should be very helpful in assessing implementation. It is worth pointing out that the indicators used by Eurostat do not allow monitoring the sustainable development of the energy sector, but only its selected components. The GUS (Central Statistical Office in Poland) also does not produce separate reports or studies on the sustainable development of the domestic energy sector [46].

The International Partnerships for Sustainable Energy Initiatives have also been established to provide an analytical tool for assessing current energy production and use patterns at national level [45]. General guidelines and methodologies for the development of national indicators related to monitoring the impact of energy policy on the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development are being prepared [47].

The acquisition and use of energy is an essential component of sustainable development. Seventeen targets have been adopted under the new 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [48]. One of these important objectives is to ensure that everyone has access to stable, sustainable, modern, and affordable energy. This indicates overcoming challenges and taking advantage of numerous opportunities which are significantly related to access to energy. It is necessary in work, security, the fight against climate change [49], food production, and efforts to increase national incomes. Sustainable energy is an opportunity for a better future, as it can transform human life, entire economies, and even our planet [50].

The European Union’s energy policy and legal acts concerning the power sector are aimed at implementing a philosophy consistent with the principles of sustainable development, primarily through the development of technologies using renewable energy resources and the development of combined heat and power generation [51].

The Green Paper was an attempt to indicate the directions of the European Union’s strategy towards sustainable energy development [52]. The European Union is of the opinion that corporate social responsibility is important in achieving the objectives of the Lisbon Strategy, including sustainable economic development. Published in 2001, the CSR Green Paper is the first EU document on CSR. It defines corporate social responsibility, describes methods of implementing CSR in various types of enterprises, and emphasizes the importance of research and social reporting [53].

The main area of balancing energy development is energy policy. Sustainable energy is defined as the conversion of primary energy into electricity and heat and its delivery to the final consumer in a way that allows satisfying the needs of current and future generations, taking into account the economic, social, and environmental aspects of human development. On the basis of this term, issues related to sustainable energy consumption should be treated as part of energy policy and not as energy itself. Sustainable energy is a theoretical concept that should be understood as striving for the least environmentally harmful methods of energy conversion and distribution that take into account the social and economic needs of current and future generations [54,55].

A sustainable energy system should be based on a combination of renewable energy technologies, renewable fuel transport, renewable heat, demand reduction, use efficiency, and cogeneration of energy production [56]. The features of this system are as follows: emphasis on long-term economic and environmental goals; increasing the use of renewable energy sources; increasing penetration of new technologies in manufacturing and management; operating in competitive markets; increasing emphasis on taking account of external costs; and operating in international markets with equal competition rules [57].

Renewable energy sources have a special role in energy sustainability processes. In the first decade of this century, it was pointed out that it is difficult to imagine a situation in which all the energy obtained would come only from renewable sources. The main barriers would be the following: the limited human capacity to store electricity, high costs, lack of universal capacity for mass production of installations, and above all, lack of political will. Nowadays, sustainable energy is a different and broader concept from renewable energy, because it should include all sources with a relatively long life cycle and low environmental impact [58]. Currently, there is an increase in energy efficiency and a decrease in the price of energy from renewable sources. It can be pointed out that in the future, the increase in energy efficiency should be conducive to the development of the use of renewable energy sources, a process that is exposed in almost all statements on sustainable energy development [59]. In energy policy and development strategies, it would be advisable to give preference to those types that genuinely have a potentially unlimited supply. The direction of these activities should be leading to activities aimed at balancing the development of the energy sector. Due to the extensive use of renewable energy, it will shape greater cohesion in the territorial, social, and economic dimensions [60,61].

It is worth noting that, with regard to considerations of sustainable development as a process, a distinction should be made between two issues, namely, sustainability and sustainable development. These concepts are associated with a static situation where the state is studied, while the second is a dynamic situation in which changes are the subject of study. Energy sustainability is the process of sustainable, secure, and efficient energy assurance for sustainable development. Sustainability means guaranteeing access to energy with the principle of intergenerational justice. Development sustainability is a balance between social, economic, and ecological dimensions [62,63,64].

2.3. Micro Energy Transitions

The energy transition is about moving towards sustainable economies through renewable energy sources, saving energy, and increasing energy efficiency, in line with the principle of sustainable development. The ultimate goal of the transition is to completely replace coal, uranium, and other non-renewable energy sources in the energy mix [65]. Renewable energy includes wind, biomass (e.g., landfill gas and biogas), hydro, solar, thermal, photovoltaic, geothermal, and tidal energy. These renewable sources are intended to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels [29].

Piecemeal action has limited potential, so the timely implementation of the energy transition requires several approaches in parallel. Energy saving and improving energy efficiency play a major role in the transition.

The authors of this study indicate that an effective way to save energy is better thermal insulation in buildings, while an example of improving energy efficiency is the cogeneration of heat and energy. Smart electric meters can plan energy consumption at a time when electricity is most cheaply available.

After such a transition period, with continued growth in renewable energy production, renewables will account for most, if not all, of the world’s energy resources over 50 years, according to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Off-grid energy production systems are currently used on a small scale [66]. However, the development of technology may mean that in the future there will be more and more such energy islands. The law does not impose an obligation to connect to the power grid. This means that each of us can produce energy for our own use without the involvement of energy companies. However, there are many indications that island systems will not be implemented on a large scale in the near future [67]. The development of wind energy in Poland over the last 20 years has generated an additional PLN 3.5 billion in tax revenues to the budgets of municipalities and the State Treasury. Most of this amount, as much as PLN 2.1 billion, was property tax, which remains entirely in municipalities, supporting, for example, infrastructure investments in the sewage networks and roads. Some municipalities, thanks to additional revenues, also co-finance the replacement of non-ecological heating sources for residents or in public buildings [68,69].

2.4. Restructuring of Electricity Supply

The understanding of green energy processes is becoming more and more indicative of activities based on the creation of all kinds of business. Electrical systems around the world are still dominated by large power stations [70,71].

Despite this, consumers are conscious of the use of fossil fuels [72], nuclear uranium, or water, buying more and more electricity produced alternatively, indicating an interest in green energy, which often uses renewable energy resources such as the sun, wind, running water, or biomass to create electricity-based resources. There was growing public concern about their impact on the environment and conventional methods of electricity generation. With the introduction of competition, systems traditionally characterized by the public or private systems create monopolies that produce, transmit, and distribute radically transformed electricity. Although the details of restructuring plans vary from country to country, virtually all of them have at least one thing in common, which is that every location in the course of electricity industry restructuring has or will soon be a competition in electricity generation. With this comes increased consumer choice in the supply of electricity for individual customers. Individuals have the ability to request and then purchase green energy for the sake of the environment and the restructuring of the electrical industry enables the development of new green energy products and the emergence of green energy [73,74].

Green energy is not so developed in restructured electrical systems. Until now, analyses of potential green energy markets have largely been focused on people’s willingness to pay premiums for green energy or electricity generated from renewable sources. Given that green energy is expected to cost more than conventional electricity, at least initially, it was taken to estimate the green electricity market at different levels of price premiums [75].

The authors point out that others have tried to determine whether potential buyers of green energy have characteristics that distinguish them. To try to identify a green power buyer, analysts examined the relationship between willingness to pay a green energy premium and various demographic characteristics or attitude factors [76].

Current policies in developing countries are aimed at achieving wider private sector participation in mining and energy, including privatization. The basis for success lies in reducing the role of governments in economic activity, phasing out price controls, import duties, and subsidies, and phasing out restrictions on burning coal in certain types of power plants. The aim is to provide cheap energy to the poor, i.e., to change the subsidy system from a system of subsidizing producers to a system of subsidizing consumers. The management and transfer of effective management methods, through multinational enterprises or other methods, makes it possible to achieve a significant increase in the productivity of enterprises. Transfer tools can be company-sponsored education, training, and the transfer of knowledge to local communities [77].

In developing countries, setting health, safety, environmental, and quality standards aims development at three areas: economic, social, and environmental. This requires a gradual, smooth transition from minimum requirements to stricter standards, rather than the rapid application of the world’s best standards. International financial institutions should identify a phased implementation strategy as appropriate when setting credit conditions [78].

Green energy marketing—the act of diversifying the sale of electricity generated wholly or entirely from renewable sources—has emerged in more than a dozen countries around the world [79]. Almost two million customers around the world today buy green energy.

Around the world, many electricity consumers are given the opportunity to choose their electricity supplier. In some cases, cleaner power options are available [80]. Green energy marketing is an activity consisting of the diversified sale of electricity generated entirely or entirely from renewable sources—it has appeared in several countries throughout the world. In addition to allowing customers to choose how to generate their energy capacity, the development of green energy markets is important as they provide renewable energy developers with access to an additional income stream to cover the transnational costs of generating electricity from renewable sources. Currently, green energy is offered to retail customers in Australia, Canada, Japan, the USA, and a number of European countries [80].

The media first started selling green energy to customers in Australia in the mid-90s. Currently, current retail energy providers offer green energy options in New South Wales, Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), South Australia, and Western Australia, giving more than 95% of retail sales in that country a green energy purchase option. There are about 20 green energy products available in Australia, about three-quarters of them accredited by the National Green Power Accreditation program [74].

2.5. Household Decisions in the Aspect of Ecology

A household is defined as a person or group of people living together who jointly manage a time and financial budget [81,82]. Households go through several developmental phases, depending on age, having or not having children, on the paid or unpaid work performed in the household. Depending on the life cycle in which the household is currently located, we can indicate its other needs or limitations. However, all households, regardless of their life cycle, have an impact on the environment through the use of environmental resources, and the consumption and generation of waste. Certain environmental risks are associated with household activities. The first threat we can talk about is household consumption [83,84]. The consumption model of a single household depends on several factors, such as the life cycle of the farm, consumption patterns of people included in the farm, and the size of income. Speaking about household consumption on a global scale, it has changed in recent years under the influence of globalization of production, income growth, changes in technologies used, and new purchase opportunities created by online shopping platforms [85,86,87].

The consumption habits of food goods cause environmental impacts related to the transport of food, its storage and cooking, and the generation of waste. The increase in income makes it possible to purchase more and more electronic equipment, which affects the increasing amount of electricity consumed. Households use the largest amount of energy for heating flats and houses. The increase in income has resulted in an increase in the number of apartments purchased and houses built, often with a large area, sometimes used by individuals or small families [88].

The beginnings of shaping the ecological awareness of man as an individual can be seen in the emerging need for clean air and the environment. By attempting to define the term “clean environment”, one can refer to a number of needs that man wants and tries to satisfy at the appropriate level and quality. The need for a clean environment is associated with feeling the lack of a clean environment or dissatisfaction with its current state. Analyzing the need for a clean environment, we see other needs that will be met thanks to it, e.g., healthy food and rest in natural surroundings [7].

Pointing to the definition of ecological awareness, we can point out that consciousness is the dependence of people on the rest of nature and awareness of the impact that human activity has on the surrounding environment [89]. Another definition indicates that the concept of ecological awareness is used in two senses. The broader meaning indicates “the totality of recognized ideas, values, and opinions about the environment as a place of life and development of society common to specific social groups in a given period of time” [90].

Analyzing the narrower approach, ecological awareness is the state of knowledge, views, and ideas of society about the role of the environment in the life of an individual. The area of interest of environmental awareness is also the anthropogenic burden, degree of exploitation, threats, and protection. An important element is also the state and level of knowledge about the ways and tools of management, use, protection, and shaping of the environment [91].

In order to build environmental awareness, it is essential to have both ecological knowledge and imagination. The process of shaping environmental awareness is an extremely complex process, requiring significant financial and time outlays. For the full creation of environmental awareness, it is extremely important to build systems that allow the implementation of this field of knowledge at individual levels of education. The basis of ecological knowledge should be one of the elements in the school system, both at pre-primary and tertiary education levels [92].

Ecological knowledge is defined as the general knowledge of the processes occurring in the biosphere and ecosystems and the relationship between different spheres of human activity and the environment, and knowledge of the possibilities of counteracting various ecological threats, as well as environmental management tools [93]. Ecological imagination, on the other hand, is a specific disposition, including the ability to predict the ecological effects of undertaken actions, the ability to comprehensively see and grasp the links between individual or organized social human activity and natural processes, and the ability to design activities in accordance with the requirements of ecological knowledge [64,94].

In sociological terms, ecological awareness refers to the collective. It means a category that, through the consolidation of the ethical system through values, evaluations, and norms, contributes to significant social change. Ecological awareness is the totality of social views, opinions, assessments, social values, and norms and patterns of behavior related to the human relationship to the natural environment [95,96].

The basic component of ecological awareness is ecological knowledge, understood as knowledge of the phenomena, processes, connections, and dependencies that occur in the environment, as well as understanding the way of coexistence of man with nature, and the connections between man and the environment. Ecological imagination refers to the ability to predict the consequences of one’s own actions and of society as a whole and their impact on the environment [97].

3. Material and Methods

The research model adopted in this work consisted of the following stages: formulation of the research problem, literature review, determination of the research objective and formulation of the research question, formulation of research hypotheses, collection of empirical material, selection of adequate statistical tools for verification of research hypotheses on the basis of empirical material, verification of research hypotheses, and formulation of conclusions on the basis of the conducted research.

In order to solve the research problem defined in the work, the authors conducted a nationwide survey on a representative sample of users of single-family houses.

A single-family house is defined as any house in which one family lives. Therefore, the concept of a single-family house includes all detached houses, semi-detached houses, and terraced houses. Due to the ecological subject matter of the work and the research problem, the population of single-family houses that are not heated with coal and wood was studied. According to data from the report of the Institute of Economics and Environment for 2017, there are about 1,667,000 single-family houses in Poland, excluding those heated with coal and wood. For the purpose of the test, a sample was taken with an abundance of [98] n = 406, which, assuming a 5% standard error and a maximum assumed significance level in inference α = 0.05, is a number meeting the minimum assumptions to maintain the representativeness of the sample. To ensure the randomness of the sample, a random report was used in the form of a database of households in Poland belonging to the IPC Research Institute, which carried out this study. In addition, to ensure representativeness of the probabilistic nature of the sample, stratified random selection was used [99].

The relevant survey was preceded by a pilot study which was carried out on a preliminary sample of 45 farms. The results obtained in the pilot study allowed the questionnaire to be verified and its final version to be drawn up. The verification was carried out on the basis of the analysis of the value of the Cronbach alpha coefficient. The minimum value of this coefficient for measurement reliability should be 0.7. The analysis of the questionnaire using this parameter allowed the determination of the final number and content of the questions [100].

The questionnaire on the basis of which the study was conducted contained 49 questions. Due to the narrow research problem and the limited framework of this study, the authors used only six variables corresponding to six selected questions of the questionnaire for analysis. These variables are listed in

Table 1. Variables used in this study.

Designation	Specify a Variable in Detail
Y	Please specify how important it is for you that the heating device is environmentally friendly?
X1	Sex
X2	Age
X3	Voivodeship
X4	Size of the village
X5	Education

Source: Own elaboration.

. The remaining results obtained in the main study will be analyzed in order to solve research problems published in subsequent papers.

In pursuit of the overarching goal of the work for the purpose of verifying the research hypotheses and solving the defined research problem, the authors attempted to investigate which of the variables in Table 1 (from X₁ to X₅) significantly affect the ecological approach when making decisions related to the choice of a heating device for a household (Y). The variables from X₁ to X₅ in the study were independent variables (of the system), and the variable Y played the role of an independent variable (system). All variables used in the study except variable X₂ are qualitative variables. Variable X₂ is a quantitative variable, but measured on an interval scale with unequal intervals. Of the qualitative variables, two of them (X₁ and X₃) were measured on a nominal scale and the other three (X₄, X₅, and Y) on an ordinal scale.

Due to the predominantly qualitative nature of the potential factors determining the ecological decisions of the owners of single-family houses subjected to the study, the authors decided to use log-linear analysis for the analysis. The foundations of these analyses were developed by Bartlett and Roy and Kastenbaum in 1953 and 1956, respectively [100,101]. The authors of the above works, using one of the methods of highest reliability commonly used in estimation, analyzed relationships and independence in a set of qualitative variables. Simultaneously with log-linear analysis, two other methods were developed: the GSK method and logistic regression. It is worth noting here that if in the logistic regression model all variables are qualitative variables, this model boils down to log-linear models. Due to the limited framework of this study, the mathematical details of the log-linear analysis and the two competing methods will not be presented. These details can be found in the following works: [102,103,104,105].

The starting point in the log-linear analysis are multi-division tables illustrating the abundance of individual variants of the analyzed variables compiled in pairs [106]. The basis for log-linear analysis is the study of the occurrence or absence of deviations between the actual (observed) abundances and those expected in multi-division tables for variables arranged in pairs. Any significant deviations in the observed abundance from the expected ones are a signal that there may be a relationship between the studied variables. It can also be put in such a way that the lack of significant deviations between the observed abundances and the expected abundances indicates that the model of variable independence is well suited to the data. Otherwise, the model is mismatched and should be discarded and another one adopted that allows for a relationship between variables. This is how the concept of a model is defined in log-linear analysis. To assess the fit of the model to the data, it is necessary to assess the significance of the observed deviations from the expected numbers. The significance is checked using the chi-square test. If the test shows it, the model should be rejected.

The log-linear analysis method takes its name from the fact that, after the logarithmic transformation of expected values, the model can be written in linear form. If categorization factors (variables) are used for the study, this includes the following: X₁ with levels

$i=1,2,\dots ,p_{X_1}$, X₂ with levels, …, $p_{X_2}$, and X_m, a generalized form of the model, can be represented by the following equation: $p_{X_m}$.

$$\mathit{ln}\left({\widehat{n}}^{X\dots }\right)=\bar{n}+\sum {\gamma }_i^{X_1}+,\dots ,\sum {\gamma }_{ij}^{X_1{X}_2}+,\dots ,+\sum {\gamma }_{ijk}^{X_1{X}_2{X}_3}+,\dots$$

(1)

where - is the vector with which denotes the expected abundance ${\widehat{n}}^{X\dots }$$\left[n_i^{X_1}{n}_{ij}^{X_1{X}_2}\dots \right]$$n_i^{X_1}$, and i—this level of factor X1, while n is the expected abundance for the interaction, and – is this level of factor X₁, with $n_{ij}^{X_1{X}_2}$j—this level of factor X₂, etc.

$\overline{n}$ is the mean of the natural logarithms of all observed abundances calculated from

$$\overline{n}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}{\displaystyle \sum _X^k{\displaystyle \sum _i^l\ln (n_i^X)}}$$

(2)

${\displaystyle \sum _X,}{\displaystyle \sum _i}$—respectively, the summation of all factors and the summation over all levels of factors; ${\gamma }_i^{X_1}$,—denote, respectively, the index i—this level of factor X₁, and the ${\gamma }_{ij}^{X_1{X}_2}$${\gamma }_{ijk}^{X_1{X}_2{X}_3}$ interaction index of order two between i—this level of factor X₁ and j—this level of factor X₂, and the indicator of interaction of the third order between i—this level of factor X₁, j—this level of factor X₂, and k—this level of factor X₃.

In log-linear analysis, it is assumed that all factors add up to zero after the impact levels.

Model parameters are estimated based on empirical data. The interpretation of the estimated parameters is such that if they are >0, then ${\gamma }_j^{X_1}$j—this category of variable X stimulates the number of observed cases, and if they are <0, then it limits the number of observed cases to ${\gamma }_j^X$ [98].

The model shown in Equation (1) is a complete model. For the purposes of research from full models, other models can be obtained assuming that some interactions will not be taken into account, and then it is assumed that the parameters illustrating these interactions are equal to 0. Of course, researchers are interested in the simplest models, but on the other hand, they are interested in those as best suited as possible. The task is to find the optimal model that will reconcile these two features with each other. An important fact is also that, in log-linear analysis, the attention of researchers is attracted by the effects of interaction, and not, as is in other methods, the main effects. With the help of log-linear models, hypotheses are verified that assume no interaction between two or more variables. Log-linear analysis is also a useful tool for analysis in multi-division tables, when researchers do not know the structure of the studied phenomenon well, and do not divide variables a priori into dependent and independent variables. In this case, log-linear analysis gives the opportunity to search for any dependencies in a set of qualitative variables.

4. Results

For the log-linear analysis carried out for the purpose of identifying factors that affect the ecological attitude when making decisions related to heating a single-family house, the independent variables (factors) X₁, X₂, X₄, and X₅, described in Table 1, were assumed. As a dependent variable, the variable Y was assumed, which was observed on three levels. The independent variables included in the study, X₁, X₂, X₄, and X₅, were observed with two, four, five, and four categories, respectively.

The study using log-linear analysis was divided into two parts. In the first part, a log-linear analysis was performed for the dependent variable Y with a pair of independent variables, X₁ and X₂, while in the second part, the log-linear analysis was carried out for the variable Y with the pair of independent variables X₄ and X₅. Table 1 also contains the variable X₃, which informs about the voivodship in which each of the surveyed households was located. It was not included in the log-linear analysis due to too many levels. However, the effect of this variable on the dependent variable Y was assessed using the chi-square independence test, which showed no relationship between the variable Y and X₃.

In the first place, for both analyses, the maximum order of interaction had to be determined for the purposes of the model specifications. For this purpose, all interactions for both models were tested. The results of the chi-square test of the highest reliability and Pearson tests for individual interactions in both models are included in

Table 2. Test results for interactions between variables Y, X₁, and X₂.

Degree of Interaction	Degrees of Freedom	Value χ2 ML	p-Value	Value χ2 Pearson	p-Value
1	6	577,5800	0,000000	739,9070	0,000000
2	11	31,4254	0,000943	30,0168	0,001575
3	6	5,5179	0,479294	5,0714	0,534690

Source: Own elaboration.

and

Table 3. Test results for interactions between variables Y, X₄, and X₅.

Degree of Interaction	Degrees of Freedom	Value χ2 ML	p-Value	Value χ2 Pearson	p-Value
1	9	768,7878	0,000000	1298,250	0,000000
2	26	44,5118	0,013308	51,954	0,001824
3	24	14,9541	0,922096	14,760	0,927595

Source: Own elaboration.

.

Based on the results of the chi-square test of the highest reliability and Pearson tests in the form of p-values in Table 2 and Table 3, it was determined that the maximum interaction of the second order should be included in both models. The decision was made on the basis of a comparison of the p-value with the significance level α = 0.05, at which the inference was made. The results of both tests were significant for up to the second degree interaction.

In order to clarify which of the second-order interactions for both models should be included in the models, fit tests were carried out on all interactions and models of partial and boundary dependencies. The results of the tests are included in

Table 4. Test results of partial and boundary relationships between factors Y, X₁, and X₂.

Factors	Degrees of Freedom	Partial Dependence χ2	p-Value	Marginal Dependence χ2	p-Value
Y	2	445,0925	0,000000
X1	1	27,1762	0,000000
X2	3	105,3114	0,000000
Y X1	2	2,6706	0,263077	1,09283	0,579021
Y X2	6	19,3089	0,003673	17,73101	0,006941
X1X2	3	12,6015	0,005583	11,02371	0,011598

Source: Own elaboration.

and

Table 5. Test results of partial and boundary relationships between factors Y, X₄, and X₅.

Factors	Degrees of Freedom	Partial Dependence χ2	p-Value	Marginal Dependence χ2	p-Value
Y	2	423,9965	0,000000
X4	4	99,2328	0,000000
X5	3	245,5587	0,000000
Y X4	8	3,6808	0,884716	3,14270	0,925086
Y X5	6	17,9896	0,006258	17,45155	0,007759
X4X5	12	23,9176	0,020872	23,37958	0,024671

Source: Own elaboration.

for the first and second models, respectively.

First, the data from Table 4 for the model with variables Y, X₁, and X₂ will be analyzed. Due to the fact that the chi-square test rejected third-order interactions, they were no longer included in the study of partial and boundary relationships. Of the second-order interactions, the result of the partial and boundary relationship tests only for the interaction between the variables Y and X₁ showed no significance. If there is no significance for a partial relationship for this interaction, it means that it is not relevant when there are other second-order interactions in the model. The lack of significance in the case of an edge relationship means that the impact of this interaction is not significant even if the other interactions are not included in the model in addition to the interaction between the variables Y and X₁. In the case of interactions between variables Y and X₂ and variables X₁ and X₂, both partial and boundary relationships are important, i.e., the impact of both is significant. Of course, in the context of the defined research problem, the authors are interested only in the interaction of independent variables with the dependent variable.

The obtained results for the model with variables Y, X₁, and X₂ indicate the need to take into account three main factors and the second-order interaction between the variables Y and X₂ and X₁ and X₂. The log-linear model takes the following form:

$$\ln \left({\widehat{n}}_{(ijk)}\right)=\overline{n}+{\gamma }_i^Y+{\gamma }_j^{X_1}+{\gamma }_k^{X_2}+{\gamma }_{ik}^{Y{X}_2}+{\gamma }_{jk}^{X_1{X}_2}$$

(3)

The estimated model is well suited to empirical data, as evidenced by the values of the chi-square and p-value statistics for the tests performed. The value of χ² of the highest reliability is 8.188 and p_v = 0.415, and the value of Pearson’s χ² statistic is 8.071 with p_v = 0.426. Both of these p-values are greater than the assumed significance level α = 0.05 at which the inference is made, hence validating the above conclusions. The good fit of the model for the variables Y, X₁, and X₂ is also confirmed graphically in the graph showing the abundances observed in relation to the matched ones (Figure 1).

Summing up the obtained results, it is stated that gender (X₁) does not affect the ecological approach of users of single-family houses in Poland when making decisions related to the method of heating the house. In contrast, the influence of age (X₂) of users of single-family homes has an impact. Based on the results in the boundary tables, it is stated that younger people definitely think more about ecology when making decisions related to the way they heat their home.

Similarly, analyzing the results (Table 5) for the model with variables Y, X₄, and X₅, it is obtained that of all second-order interactions, the results of the partial and boundary relationship tests only for the interactions between the variables Y and X₄ showed no significance. This means that it will not be included in the model. The p-values of the partial and boundary dependency tests reached a value below 0.05, indicating the significance of these interactions, and they will be included in the model. Therefore, the model for the variables Y, X₄, and X₅ describes the following equation:

$$\ln \left({\widehat{n}}_{(ijk)}\right)=\overline{n}+{\gamma }_i^Y+{\gamma }_j^{X_4}+{\gamma }_k^{X_5}+{\gamma }_{ik}^{Y{X}_5}+{\gamma }_{jk}^{X_1{X}_5}$$

(4)

The estimated model is well suited to empirical data, as evidenced by the values of the chi-square and p-value statistics for the tests performed. The value of χ² of the highest reliability is 18.635 and p_v = 0.971, and the value of Pearson’s χ² statistic is 17.858 with p_v = 0.979. Both values of p_v are greater than the assumed significance level α = 0.05 at which the inference is made, hence validating the above conclusions. The good fit of the model for the variables Y, X₄, and X₅ is also confirmed graphically in the graph showing the numbers observed in relation to the matched ones (Figure 2).

Summing up the obtained results from the model for variables Y, X₄, and X₅, it is stated that the size of the locality (X₄) does not affect the ecological approach of users of single-family houses in Poland when making decisions related to the method of heating the house, while the education of users (X₅) has an impact on the studied variable Y. The analysis of the results from the boundary tables gave grounds to draw the conclusion that, among users of single-family houses with a higher level of education, there are more people who think about ecology when making decisions related to the home heating system than among users with a lower level of education.

5. Discussion

This article analyzes the factors determining the ecological attitudes of households when making strategic energy decisions related to the choice of heating devices. The research was conducted on a representative group of users of single-family houses in Poland, excluding those in which energy is obtained from burning wood or coal. The empirical results obtained from the survey were subjected to statistical analysis. With the use of log-linear analysis models, the research hypotheses resulting from the research problem posed in the paper were verified. The authors of this study used socio-demographic characteristics such as gender, age, region of the country in the form of a province, the size of the town in which the building is located, and the education of the home user as potential factors for the research. For the research problem substituted, four research hypotheses were formulated concerning the impact or lack of influence of determinants on the ecological nature of decisions made.

The results of the study for the adopted level of statistical significance indicate that the gender of the user deciding on the choice of a heating device in a single-family house has no impact on the environmental efficiency of energy-related decisions in the building. This was the conclusion of the verification of the H1 hypothesis. The study also showed that the age of home users can be taken into account as a determinant of the ecological nature of energy decisions for a single-family building. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that younger people are much more willing than older people to think about ecology when making decisions related to the way of heating the building. The results obtained for this age variable form the basis for the verification of the H2 hypothesis. The attitude towards ecological choices related to the age of the user may result from the fact that older people usually have lower incomes. In addition, bearing in mind that people tend to associate the need for a clean environment with satisfying the need for healthy food and relaxing in nature [107], the fact that age influences the ecological nature of energy decisions can be linked to this.

One may wonder why the gender of the household user does not have a statistically significant impact on decisions related to the choice of heat supply in the building. It would seem that if women are more health-conscious, they should be more eco-conscious in such decisions.

According to the results, the size of the locality in which the building is located does not have a statistically significant impact on the importance of environmental aspects in making decisions about heating. It was also shown that the region in which the household lives was also shown to have no influence on this issue. Based on these results obtained from the statistical verification, hypothesis H3 is rejected. The last factor taken into account in the analysis is the level of user education, of which the impact it has on taking ecology into account in energy decisions is included in the fourth research hypothesis (H4). The results of empirical research, using the logarithmic-linear analysis tool to verify research hypotheses, show that the level of education can be considered a determinant in accordance with the defined research problem, and at the same time positively verify the fourth hypothesis. The results further indicate that people with higher levels of education are more likely to think about ecology when deciding on a heating appliance for their home than those with lower levels of education.

These results are in line with the literature, which indicates that, in order to build environmental awareness, environmental knowledge is essential and this is acquired at every level of education [92,108].

Therefore, as shown in the empirical results of the log-linear analysis models, they are an effective tool for verifying research hypotheses at the assumed level of significance.

6. Conclusions

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the scholarly literature has increasingly criticized the dichotomous approach to economic rationalization and the prevailing models of economic development, while simultaneously showing a growing interest in the concept of sustainable development. In response to this discourse, the authors developed a conceptual research framework—referred to as the sustainable development conclusion—with a particular focus on the ecological awareness of end users in the context of implementing modern energy production technologies.

The findings of this study have significant practical implications, especially in supporting informed energy choices among owners of single-family homes. The results demonstrate that younger individuals and those with higher levels of education are more inclined to make decisions that consider environmental aspects. Accordingly, it is recommended that educational and informational initiatives be primarily targeted at older populations and those with lower levels of education, as these groups may require additional support in developing ecological awareness.

Furthermore, the results suggest that communication strategies can be designed without the need to differentiate by gender or geographic location, which considerably simplifies the planning of social and informational campaigns.

From a public policy perspective, the findings presented herein may serve as a foundation for the development of more effective support instruments for households investing in renewable technologies. Incorporating demographic factors—such as age and education level—into the design of subsidy mechanisms and promotional campaigns for sustainable energy transitions can significantly enhance the effectiveness of public interventions. Moreover, the analysis points to the need for shifting the emphasis from regionalization of energy policies to educational efforts, particularly among social groups with lower levels of ecological awareness.

The primary objective of this study was to identify the factors that determine the environmental attitudes of Polish households in the context of making strategic energy-related decisions, with particular emphasis on the choice of heating technologies. The authors aimed to determine which heating methods are preferred and what factors influence these preferences. To this end, a nationwide survey was conducted among owners of single-family houses in Poland, and the collected data were analyzed using log-linear analysis. The research model included demographic variables such as gender, age, region, settlement size, and education level.

Empirical results indicated that the key determinants of environmentally conscious energy decisions are the age and education level of household members. Younger respondents were significantly more likely to consider environmental aspects when selecting heating systems, as were those with higher education. In contrast, variables such as gender, settlement size, and region of residence did not show statistically significant effects on the environmental nature of energy decisions.

The achievement of the research objectives enabled the formulation and testing of a theoretical model that integrates various approaches to sustainable economic management. It also allowed for the identification of knowledge gaps in the existing literature. Addressing these gaps constitutes both an added value of this study and a foundation for future research. The authors acknowledge the limitations associated with the geographic scope of the study—the observed relationships in Poland may not be directly transferable to other countries. Therefore, further research is warranted, extending the analysis to other EU member states or selected non-EU countries.

The results make a valuable contribution to the literature on environmental attitudes among households and the determinants of energy decisions. The analysis of demographic factors—such as age, education level, gender, geographic location, and settlement size—provides deeper insight into the social mechanisms underlying preferences in heating technology selection. The confirmation of age and education as key determinants of pro-environmental decision-making aligns with the broader research trend concerning the role of cultural capital in shaping environmental attitudes. At the same time, the rejection of gender and geographic location as significant factors highlights the need to revisit some previously accepted theoretical assumptions.