Climate Change and Energy Security: A Comparative Analysis of the Role of Energy Policies in Advancing Environmental Sustainability

Abstract

This review analyzes the complex relationship between climate change and energy security and their joint impact on global development. It emphasizes the need for sustainable energy solutions to tackle increasing global warming effects and energy demands. A thorough literature analysis highlights the link between energy policies, climate goals, and sustainable development aspirations. Moreover, it examines the effectiveness of energy policies in various national contexts in promoting environmental sustainability and emphasizing regional dynamics, socio-economic factors, and diverse energy planning approaches. The review explains the multifaceted relationship between climate change, energy security, and environmental protection. Key recommendations related to renewable energy transitions are provided as crucial means to address global energy demand and resource constraints while reducing dependence on fossil fuels. The analysis underscores renewable energy’s key role in aligned energy strategies that balance security and sustainability for a low-carbon future. It emphasizes the critical need for coordinated policies, technological innovation, and collaborative action between academia, industry, and policymakers to advance integrated energy systems and thermal storage solutions.

1. Introduction

In today’s world, policymakers urgently prioritize two significant global challenges: climate change and energy security. Climate change increasingly impacts us through extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and ecosystem degradation. Simultaneously, growing populations and economic development intensify the demand for reliable energy. Sustainable solutions have become critical as the historic dependence on fossil fuels exacerbates climate change and strains energy security, particularly for nations reliant on imports. However, there is an ongoing shift towards renewable energy sources, which offer both environmental benefits and strategic advantages. This transition involves complex interactions between sociopolitical dynamics, economic imperatives, regional geopolitics, and the need for global cooperation.

This review conducts a comparative analysis across European, Asian, African, North and South American, and Middle Eastern contexts, offering essential insights into the intricate relationship between climate change and energy security. It evaluates the effectiveness of various national strategies, examines the impact of geopolitical tensions, explores the trade-offs with economic and social objectives, and highlights success stories while recognizing ongoing challenges. The aim is to promote cross-country learning and advance towards a sustainable and equitable energy future. This future must balance security concerns with environmental responsibility. Addressing this complexity requires nuanced and collaborative policy approaches that account for regional dynamics and development contexts. By providing evidence-based recommendations, this review contributes to developing integrated policy frameworks that can harmonize national interests with collective climate action.

2. Evaluating and Advancing Global Energy Performance through the World Energy Trilemma Index (WETI)

The World Energy Trilemma Index (WETI) is a tool developed in 2010 by the World Energy Council (WEC), in collaboration with the global consultancy of Oliver Wyman and Marsh & McLennan Companies (London, UK), to evaluate and rank the energy performance of countries across three critical dimensions: energy security, energy equity, and environmental sustainability (as shown and defined in Figure 1). These dimensions represent a nation’s capacity to meet energy demands reliably, provide universal access to energy, and transition towards environmentally sustainable energy systems, respectively. The index has been prepared annually since 2010, aiming to offer a balanced approach to managing the complex trade-offs among these dimensions as countries transform to decentralized, decarbonized, and digital energy systems [1].

Figure 1. World Energy Trilemma Index (WETI) [1].

The Energy Trilemma Index ranks the energy performance of 127 countries based on global and national data. The index provides insights into each country’s relative energy performance across the three dimensions and is designed to inform policymakers, energy leaders, investors, and financial sectors. It offers a platform to celebrate policy gains, understand challenges in balancing the Energy Trilemma, and identify improvement opportunities to meet combined sustainable energy and environmental goals. The WEC aims to improve the transparency of its methodology. This enhancement will allow for more effective measurement and tracking of different countries’ performances, making the index more resilient. This is particularly important in light of the multiple crises witnessed in 2022. Such crises include the ongoing impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and disruptions in global energy supply chains due to the invasion of Ukraine [2]. This implies a continued evolution of the WETI is needed to better reflect the changing global energy landscape and provide more actionable insights to energy policy, investment, and management stakeholders. In 2023, the WEC will progress to a more flexible Trilemma approach, offering a more comprehensive understanding of energy performance. This reimagined approach is part of the WEC’s effort to respond to the urgent need for fast, transparent, and reliable data collection to support faster energy transitions. Adapting the Trilemma indicators and methodology, such as the water/energy nexus, regional integration, energy storage, humanizing energy, and fuel poverty, better reflects community concerns and stakeholder realities [1].

The 2022 WETI shows that countries with well-established energy policies and diverse energy systems are ranked highest, with nations from the European Union (EU) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) leading the way. Countries like Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland are front-runners, effectively navigating all three Trilemma dimensions and emphasizing policies promoting diverse and decarbonized energy ecosystems. The top-ranking countries have remained relatively consistent in previous years. Still, several new top-tier performers, including Slovenia and Estonia, climbed to 11th and 8th places last year [1].

Sweden, maintaining its first position in 2021, achieved high energy security, equity, and environmental sustainability scores. Switzerland occupies the second position globally, noted for its energy equity and low-carbon power mix despite challenges in energy security. Denmark is placed third, demonstrating a solid commitment to renewable energy sources (RESs) while also dealing with a decrease in energy security due to the reconstruction of its major gas field, Tyra. Other non-EU nations such as Canada, New Zealand, the United States, Australia, Japan, and Uruguay have reached the top 20. Uruguay was the only non-OECD/non-EU nation on this list and has been celebrated for its highly decarbonized power system [1].

The most improved countries since 2000 have enhanced their WETI scores by at least 25%, overcoming challenges related to energy access. These nations have made strides in expanding their electrical grids and improving accessibility. Cambodia stands out as the most improved nation since 2000, with Kenya also showing notable progress. China remains one of the top improvers, with its economic growth closely linked to expanding energy access. However, there is no room for complacency. With their already decarbonized electricity systems, Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries hold a strategic advantage for future energy transitions, reflecting significant progress in sustainable energy policies [1]. Figure 2 shows the world map of the Energy Trilemma Index in 2021 [3]. As an essential factor of the WETI, this review emphasizes the factor of energy security and its impacts.

Figure 2. World Map of Energy Trilemma Index in 2021 [3].

3. Climate Change and Energy Security

Addressing the Energy Trilemma holistically is essential for guiding us toward a more sustainable and secure energy future. This comprehensive approach involves balancing the three pillars of energy equity (affordability), energy security (access and adequacy), and environmental sustainability (acceptability). Studies contributing to the Energy Trilemma and its impact on climate change and energy security are summarized in Table 1.

The energy equity pillar focuses on ensuring affordable energy for all, balancing the need for low-cost access with the goal of economic viability. On the other hand, the energy security pillar emphasizes reliable and adequate energy supply to meet the demands of growing populations and economies. In the European context, the security of external energy supplies, including energy affordability considerations, is paramount. Measuring the security of energy supply should account for factors such as energy intensity, costs, technology, and various physical and political factors [4]. This emphasizes the need for affordable energy solutions that do not compromise the overall security and stability of the supply. South Asia has significant energy management challenges, including a shortage of domestic energy sources. Cross-border investments in RE are essential as a crucial strategy in South Asia, highlighting the connection between affordable energy access, climate change adaptation, and energy security [5]. A global consensus is emerging on the role of renewable and decarbonized energy in addressing energy shortages and environmental deterioration, emphasizing sustainable and affordable energy sources. For instance, hydrogen production through biological pathways shows promise due to its carbon neutrality and low energy consumption, which are pivotal in providing affordable energy solutions and addressing environmental concerns [6,7,8,9]. Moreover, the interconnectedness of energy policies, climate change goals, and broader sustainable development objectives has been underscored. For example, the interactions between energy and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are mapped, highlighting how affordable energy access intertwines broader socioeconomic and environmental goals [10,11]. These insights demonstrate the regional efforts and global consensus towards achieving energy equity and security through adopting affordable, sustainable, and secure energy solutions, aligning with the Energy Trilemma framework’s focus on balancing affordability with security and sustainability.

The third pillar of the Energy Trilemma, environmental sustainability, concerns the acceptability of energy policies regarding their environmental impact. For instance, the production and use of biogas is a significant area of focus in the quest for environmental sustainability. Studies on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from biogas production [12] and the potential for energy savings and GHG reductions from biogas [13] highlight the environmental benefits of this renewable energy source. These findings are crucial as they demonstrate the potential for biogas to contribute to energy security and environmental sustainability, aligning with the goals of the Energy Trilemma. Additionally, assessing carbon footprints across countries [14] provides valuable insights into the global scale of greenhouse gas emissions. This global perspective is essential for understanding the environmental impact of energy policies and developing strategies that can effectively reduce carbon emissions internationally. These studies underscore the importance of renewable energy sources like biogas in achieving environmental sustainability. They also highlight the need for energy policies that focus on access and affordability and prioritize reducing environmental impact, thereby maintaining a balance within the Energy Trilemma framework.

Notably, incorporating climate change awareness into education is also pivotal in shaping future leaders and decision makers toward sustainable energy and environmental stability [15]. Moreover, the multidimensional approach to addressing climate change and energy security, which includes emissions reduction, carbon dioxide removal, adaptation, and geoengineering, among others [16,17], is a testament to the complexity and necessity of addressing the Energy Trilemma in a coordinated and multifaceted manner. Therefore, the journey towards a sustainable and secure energy future is a multifaceted endeavor that requires balancing the elements of the Energy Trilemma. This balance is crucial not only for current energy and environmental needs, but also for the prosperity and well-being of future generations.

Table 1. Summary of studies contributing to the Energy Trilemma and its impact on climate change and energy security.

Category	Insights	Reference
Energy Security	Security of external energy supply in the EU.	[4]
	Energy management challenges and benefits of cross-border renewable investment.	[18]
	Addressing climate change adaptation to ensure energy security.	[5]
	Emphasis on hydrogen as a green fuel.	[6]
	Sustainable hydrogen production.	[7]
	Hydrogen production by immobilized cyanobacterium.	[8]
	Development of biohydrogen production processes.	[9]
Energy Equity	Effects of demographic changes on energy and emissions.	[19]
	Relationship between economic growth, renewable electricity, and CO2 emissions.	[20]
	Nexus between energy intensity, carbon emissions, RE, and economic growth.	[21]
	Ethical considerations between economic growth and environmental sustainability.	[22]
	Enhancing climate change literacy in undergraduate programs.	[16]
	Use of active learning in geoscience courses.	[17]
Environmental Sustainability	GHG emissions from biogas production.	[12]
	Energy savings and GHG reductions from biogas.	[13]
	Carbon footprints across countries.	[14]
	Overview and validation of the environmental Kuznets curve.	[23]
	Application of EKC in emerging markets with advanced analytics.	[24]
	A comprehensive survey on the EKC hypothesis.	[25]
	Diversification of the energy mix in EU countries.	[26]
	Role of technology in climate and energy politics.	[27]
	The significance of end-use tech in energy and climate change.	[28]
	Role of energy technology innovation in Canada.	[29]
	Integrating RESs with TES systems.	[30]
	Contribution of renewable electricity to mitigating CO2 emissions.	[20]
	RE and environmental sustainability in Europe.	[31]
	Role of RE in environmental sustainability in BRICS countries.	[32]
	Promises and limitations of nuclear fission energy.	[33]
	Relationship between nuclear energy, RE, CO2 emissions, and economic growth in the US.	[34]

Table 1. Summary of studies contributing to the Energy Trilemma and its impact on climate change and energy security.

Category	Insights	Reference
Energy Security	Security of external energy supply in the EU.	[4]
	Energy management challenges and benefits of cross-border renewable investment.	[18]
	Addressing climate change adaptation to ensure energy security.	[5]
	Emphasis on hydrogen as a green fuel.	[6]
	Sustainable hydrogen production.	[7]
	Hydrogen production by immobilized cyanobacterium.	[8]
	Development of biohydrogen production processes.	[9]
Energy Equity	Effects of demographic changes on energy and emissions.	[19]
	Relationship between economic growth, renewable electricity, and CO2 emissions.	[20]
	Nexus between energy intensity, carbon emissions, RE, and economic growth.	[21]
	Ethical considerations between economic growth and environmental sustainability.	[22]
	Enhancing climate change literacy in undergraduate programs.	[16]
	Use of active learning in geoscience courses.	[17]
Environmental Sustainability	GHG emissions from biogas production.	[12]
	Energy savings and GHG reductions from biogas.	[13]
	Carbon footprints across countries.	[14]
	Overview and validation of the environmental Kuznets curve.	[23]
	Application of EKC in emerging markets with advanced analytics.	[24]
	A comprehensive survey on the EKC hypothesis.	[25]
	Diversification of the energy mix in EU countries.	[26]
	Role of technology in climate and energy politics.	[27]
	The significance of end-use tech in energy and climate change.	[28]
	Role of energy technology innovation in Canada.	[29]
	Integrating RESs with TES systems.	[30]
	Contribution of renewable electricity to mitigating CO2 emissions.	[20]
	RE and environmental sustainability in Europe.	[31]
	Role of RE in environmental sustainability in BRICS countries.	[32]
	Promises and limitations of nuclear fission energy.	[33]
	Relationship between nuclear energy, RE, CO2 emissions, and economic growth in the US.	[34]

4. Energy Policies across Countries and Their Effectiveness in Promoting Environmental Sustainability

Energy policies are pivotal in determining a nation’s environmental direction. Numerous studies have investigated these policies in developed and developing countries, categorizing them based on their effectiveness in fostering environmental sustainability. This research is concisely summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparative analysis of energy policies and their impact on environmental sustainability across regions and countries.

Region/Country	Energy Policy/Strategy	Key Findings/Output	Ref.
(a) Regions
ASEAN region	Generation expansion planning	Emphasis on expanding energy generation capacities.	[35]
Asia–Pacific top consumers	Nuclear energy consumption	The sustainability alignment of nuclear energy is ambiguous.	[36]
Baltic states	Biomass and biofuels emphasis	Introduced a scoring system prioritizing biomass and biofuels.	[37]
Developed vs. developing countries	Varied energy policies	Socio-economic contexts influence policy design.	[38]
European Union (EU)	Trade policy and RE consumption	Policies influence environmental footprint (EFP).	[39]
	RE Policy	The policy has led to significant achievements in RE adoption. In 2020, the share of gross final energy consumption from RESs reached 22%, exceeding the 20% target set for 2020.	[40]
	RE and EE	Leading the transition towards renewables and efficiency.	[41]
GCC Region	Environmental and energy policies for sustainable consumption and production	Institutional actions are not sufficient for sustainable consumption and production; there is a need for economic diversification and a shift toward RE.	[42]
	RE, EE improvements, technological advancements, policy reforms	There has been an increased use of RES, reduction in energy consumption and carbon emissions, and advancements in EE and technology, but overall RE contribution remains low compared to conventional sources.	[43]
IEA member countries	Green energy innovations and R&D	Energy R&D is pivotal in reducing emissions.	[44]
MENA Region	RE technologies	Positive effect on sustainability development: high cultural acceptance and readiness to invest in clean energy.	[45]
	Factors driving RE deployment (economic, financial, political)	Innovation and governance quality are the main drivers; there are calls for sustainable policy options to increase innovation performance.	[46]
	Environmental Energy Security Index (EESI)	There is variation in energy security levels and recommendations for investing in local resources, diversifying the energy mix, and energy-efficient technologies.	[47]
	RE, energy intensity, green innovation	RE significantly reduces carbon emissions and emphasizes the need for green innovation and energy-efficient technologies.	[42]
	RE investments, government effectiveness	Government effectiveness and RE contribute to carbon neutrality; economic growth initially delays it.	[48]
OECD countries	Flexible energy regulations	Policies’ effectiveness, cost-efficiency, and design features.	[49]
South Asian countries	Energy Security and Environmental Sustainability Index (ESESI)	Scoring system categorizing nations on energy security and environmental sustainability.	[50]
Various Nations	Energy Planning Models	Effective policy decision making has no direct tie to environmental sustainability.	[51]
(b) Countries
Austria	Energy transition strategies towards zero-carbon energy sources	Demonstrated reduced GHG emissions.	[40]
Bangladesh	RE sourcing	Strategies tailored to national resources and contexts.	[52]
	Solar home systems	Provided electricity to over 5 million households, reducing kerosene usage and improving indoor air quality.	[40]
Brazil	Ethanol fuel policies	The policy has led to ethanol meeting 50% of light vehicle fuel needs, contributing to reduced urban air pollution and emissions.	[40]
United Kingdom	Carbon pricing vs. renewable subsidies	Carbon pricing was found to be more effective.	[53]
	RE sourcing	Strategies tailored to national resources and contexts.	[52]
China	RE-focused policies	Emphasis on creating a low-carbon society.	[54]
	Top-1000 Enterprises Energy-Saving Program	Analysis of policies targeting SO2 emissions.	[55]
	Hydropower integration	Utilized hydropower potential.	[56]
Croatia	Energy transition strategies	Demonstrated reduced GHG emissions.	[40]
Germany	Sustainable energy transition strategies	Policies focus on social equity and implementation challenges.	[57]
	Energy transition strategies to increase energy access and affordability, as well as diversification towards renewable energy	Demonstrated reduced GHG emissions.	[40]
	RE policies (feed-in tariffs, RPS)	Policies effective in promoting RE.	[58]
	Carbon pricing vs. renewable subsidies	Carbon pricing is more effective.	[53]
Greece	RE within the EKC framework	Aligned with EU’s 2030 targets and European Green Deal Investment Plan.	[59]
India	National solar mission	India’s solar power capacity grew from 2.6 GW in 2014 to over 40 GW by 2019, reducing coal dependence and emissions.	[40]
	RE-focused policies	Emphasis on creating a low-carbon society.	[54]
Italy	Sustainable energy transition strategies	Policies focus on social equity and implementation challenges.	[57]
	RE within the EKC framework	Aligned with EU’s 2030 targets and European Green Deal Investment Plan.	[59]
Japan	Sustainable energy transition strategies	Policies focus on social equity and implementation challenges.	[57]
	RE-focused policies	Emphasis on a low-carbon society.	[54]
Kenya	RE sourcing	Strategies tailored to national resources and contexts.	[52]
Norway	Hydropower integration	Utilized hydropower potential.	[56]
Portugal	RE within the EKC framework	Aligned with EU’s 2030 targets and European Green Deal Investment Plan.	[59]
South Korea	RE-focused policies	Emphasis on creating a low-carbon society.	[54]
Spain	RE within the EKC framework	Aligned with EU’s 2030 targets and European Green Deal Investment Plan.	[59]
Sweden	Hydropower integration	Utilized hydropower potential.	[56]
United States	RE policies (feed-in tariffs, RPS)	Policies effective in promoting RE.	[58]
	Renewable portfolio standards	The policy has boosted RE capacity and generation, leading to reduced emissions and health benefits.	[40]

The Energy Security and Environmental Sustainability Index (ESESI) serves as an essential analytical tool for evaluating the energy and environmental sustainability of South Asian countries. By merging energy and environmental indicators, ESESI provides a balanced perspective, prioritizing energy security and sustainability. It allows for an in-depth analysis from 2006 to 2017 [41,42], making it instrumental in assessing South Asian countries in terms of energy security and sustainability, thereby guiding policy discourse and strategic interventions [43].

Studies on sustainable energy transition strategies in nations like Germany, Japan, Italy, India, and Saudi Arabia highlight key aspects like social equity and the challenges of policy implementation. These strategies encompass a range of initiatives, from reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving energy efficiency (EE) to promoting renewable energy sources (RESs) through measures like carbon pricing and the electrification of transport [44,45,46,47].

Globally, well-crafted renewable energy (RE) policies, including feed-in tariffs and renewable portfolio standards (RPS), are emphasized, with notable implementations in Germany and the US [48]. In-depth analyses in the European Union, as conducted by Alola et al. [49], explore the interplay between trade policy and RE consumption, assessing their impact on ecological footprint (EFP). Studies also delve into the energy transition methodologies of countries like Austria, Germany, and Croatia, highlighting their success in reducing GHG emissions [51]. Major Asian nations, including China, India, South Korea, and Japan, have strategically shifted their policies towards RES, aiming for a low-carbon society [52]. The utilization of hydropower in nations like Norway, China, and Sweden further illustrates the diversity of approaches [54].

Long-term strategies underscore the importance of energy planning models, illuminating effective policy decision making across various nations and highlighting the differences in energy policies between developed and developing countries. This emphasizes the significant role of regional socio-economic contexts, as seen in Europe, the US, and Latin American countries [56]. The discourse on nuclear energy in the Asia–Pacific region and its uncertain alignment with environmental sustainability adds another layer of complexity [57].

The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) framework’s relevance to RE is evident in countries such as Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Spain, aligning with the EU’s 2030 targets [60]. This hypothesis suggests a shift in environmental impact relative to economic growth, with countries like Kenya, China, Bangladesh, and the UK offering valuable case studies in leveraging RESs [61]. The EU is at the forefront of transitions towards RE and enhanced EE [62]. Comparative analyses of policies like carbon pricing and renewable subsidies demonstrate the effectiveness of such approaches, particularly in Germany and Britain [63].

In the MENA region, the intricate relationship between RE deployment, economic growth, and government effectiveness at achieving environmental sustainability and carbon neutrality has been explored. The positive impact of RE technologies on sustainability in MENA and the need for innovation and effective governance are highlighted [64,65]. Studies suggest the need for greater diversification and efficiency in the energy mix [66], advocating for an increased adoption of RE and green innovations [67]. The research points out the need for policy reconciliation between economic and environmental goals [68].

In conclusion, energy policies are fundamental in shaping a nation’s environmental path. Influenced by unique geopolitical and socio-economic contexts, various strategies range from renewable incentives to carbon pricing mechanisms. Sarkodie and Owusu’s work [69] emphasizes the transformative potential of green energy innovations and the critical role of energy research and development (R&D) in reducing emissions among IEA member countries.

5. Investigating Challenges in Aligning Energy Security with Climate Change Mitigation

Integrating energy security measures with climate change mitigation has become a global imperative. However, when nations across various geographies and developmental stages try to harmonize these objectives, they often confront distinct challenges. Several studies have investigated the challenges of aligning energy security with climate change mitigation, and these studies are summarized in Table 3.

The South Asian region, for instance, faces considerable energy shortages coupled with a heavy reliance on conventional energy sources [50]. This challenge is similar to those faced by various countries (e.g., some Asian countries and some African countries, including Ghana) where energy extravagance and a strong dependence on fossil fuels impede the transition to more sustainable energy options [51,54,60]. There is also a noticeable divergence among industrialized nations in their approach to emissions, highlighting inconsistent achievements in environmental sustainability [44]. For instance, in Europe, countries grapple with the multifaceted challenge of aligning energy security, economic efficiency, and environmental sustainability [38]. On the other hand, the ASEAN region and Indonesia emphasize the importance of executing regional plans, particularly those that incorporate CO₂ mitigation in power generation [35].

Addressing global challenges necessitates robust policy frameworks. This is evident through Asia’s efforts to strengthen renewable energy policies [54], the EU’s pursuit of harmonized bioenergy standards [61], and the global appeal for coherent governance systems [41]. Infrastructure and green energy investments are notably significant in Asia [54,62]. From an environmental standpoint, regions like South Asia experience severe climate vulnerabilities, constituting a broader environmental challenge [50]. Similarly, Europe is growing increasingly concerned about the environmental implications of its rising energy demand [59]. In parallel, several developing countries grapple with the environmental repercussions of escalating energy intensity and rapid urbanization [63]. Despite progress, the European Union needs help implementing market-based instruments designed for EE and fostering technological advancements. Even with the potential of these innovations, there is sometimes an over-reliance on non-RES, leading to sustainability concerns [36,37].

Various regional issues have become prominent in recent times. For instance, Africa has invested heavily in comprehending the implications of large hydropower projects, especially in the context of vague definitions of “renewable” and “sustainable” energy sources [63]. Similar challenges linked to hydropower are also present in countries like India, China, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka [56,64]. Additionally, nations such as Chile have a noticeable opposition to specific energy initiatives [38]. These examples underscore the complexities and diverse regional responses in the global shift toward renewable and sustainable energy sources.

Ensuring energy security in the MENA and GCC regions while mitigating climate change is a complex and pressing challenge. These regions hold abundant hydrocarbon resources and must now find a way to balance the need for energy security, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. The MENA region has been actively investing in RESs to diversify its energy mix and reduce carbon emissions, as evidenced by the introduction of the Environmental Energy Security Index [47]. On the other hand, GCC countries face a significant trade-off between their economic development, which is heavily reliant on the hydrocarbon sector, and the resulting environmental impact [42]. The policies implemented thus far have had varying degrees of success in achieving sustainable consumption and production, highlighting the need for more effective energy–environmental policies and concrete actions towards new technologies such as solar and wind energy [48]. In summary, both regions are working towards balancing their economic dependence on fossil fuels and the global and regional imperatives of mitigating climate change. Achieving this goal will require nuanced policymaking and international cooperation.

Aligning national objectives is a complex task that requires careful consideration. For instance, the EU faces the challenge of balancing the need for energy independence with the need to reduce carbon emissions [37]. Similarly, South Korea strives to reconcile achieving competitive power pricing with the need to curb greenhouse gas emissions [65]. On a global scale, the focus is on finding a delicate equilibrium between energy affordability and accessibility and environmental sustainability [36].

It is worth noting that the challenges of energy security and climate change mitigation are unique to different countries. For instance, China underutilizes renewables, the UK focuses on resource optimization, Kenya is committed to enhancing efficiency, and Bangladesh prioritizes ecological considerations [52]. Therefore, although there is a global consensus on merging energy security with climate change mitigation, the specific approaches vary significantly depending on the regions and development levels [36,40,44]. These differences highlight the importance of flexible and collaborative global strategies to address the multifaceted challenges that arise in this endeavor.

Table 3. Challenges in aligning energy security with climate change mitigation.

Country/Region	Energy Security Challenges	Climate Change Challenges	Ref.
(a) Region
Africa	Dominance of large hydropower	Inconsistency in defining “renewable” vs. “sustainable”	[66]
ASEAN region, Indonesia	Balancing energy security and climate change issues, implementation of regional plans	Consideration of CO2 mitigation in generation planning, emphasis on renewable energy	[35]
Asia	Affordability and process technologies, dependence on fossil fuels, infrastructure, and investment for sustainable energy	Balancing energy demand with economic growth, strengthening policies for renewables	[54]
Developing countries	Increasing energy intensity due to urbanization, challenges in the power generation sector	Population and economic growth driving GHG emissions, environmental impacts of renewable technologies	[63]
EU	Balancing energy independence with emission reduction, implementing market-based instruments for EE	Issues with biomass and biofuel use, the potential overlap of certificates, and emission reduction units	[37]
	Energy import dependency, mainly from Russia, rising costs, and political challenges. Energy import dependency increased to 60.6%, potentially risking energy security. Rising energy costs challenging energy affordability.	Transitioning to renewable energy (RE) generation to meet expanding energy demand and achieve carbon neutrality. Need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to zero by 2050 and contending with the economic, social, and political ramifications of this transition. EU greenhouse gas emissions fell by 31% in 2020 compared to 1990, indicating progress towards carbon neutrality targets.	[40]
Europe (developed countries), Latin America, Africa (developing countries), Chile	Balancing security of supply with sustainability	Different emphasis on mitigation based on development status, opposition to coal and hydro projects in Chile	[38]
GCC	Hydrocarbon sector dominance, weak diversification achievements, problems with energy price reforms	High ecological footprint, low air quality, need for new technologies and energy–environmental policy improvements	[42]
	Need for tariff reforms, investments, and international collaborations. Development and integration of RE resources, microgrids, and technology-related goals. Ensuring energy security while keeping costs low for basic consumption needs.	High energy consumption in buildings, requiring energy efficiency improvements. Overcoming political, legislative, technological, and environmental hurdles in RE policy implementation. Addressing the environmental impacts of solar technologies, such as dust accumulation affecting solar device performance.	[43]
Global	Fossil fuel scarcity, energy security for import-reliant countries, need for government intervention and innovation, technological advancements relying on non-RES, and the impact of nuclear energy consumption	Environmental degradation, varying levels of environmental sustainability, fossil emissions driving green energy innovations, potential environmental degradation from natural resource usage	[36,40,44]
Global (with a focus on the EU)	Uneven distribution of biomass resource needs for harmonized policies and standards, the establishment of trade frameworks for bioenergy	Sustainable production and consumption of bioenergy	[61]
Global (with mention of South Korea)	Limited availability of natural resources, reliance on specific energy sources	Balancing stable energy supply with economic and environmental concerns, managing high GHG emissions in power generation	[65]
Global (with mention of the EU)	Need for coherent governance systems, requirement of country-specific energy transition policies	Designing clear political objectives for emissions reduction, reorientation of fuel subsidies towards new technologies	[41]
MENA	Dependence on hydrocarbons, need for renewable energy and innovation, political stability	Carbon emissions, underdeveloped research in carbon neutrality, economic growth impacting climate mitigation	[46]
	Evaluation of energy security through the Environmental Energy Security Index, diversified energy mix	Implementation of renewable energy initiatives for carbon neutrality, environmental Kuznets curve in high-income countries	[47]
South Asian region	Energy shortages, lack of access to clean energy, reliance on imported energy	Air pollution, climate vulnerability, natural resource degradation	[50]
(b) Countries
China, United Kingdom, Kenya, Bangladesh	Underutilization of renewables in China, optimizing resources in the UK, increasing efficiency in Kenya	Ecological concerns and alternative energy sources in Bangladesh	[52]
Ghana (developing countries’ context)	Fast-growing energy demands with financial constraints, reliance on fossil fuels, hydropower, and traditional biomass	Rapid growth in energy demand affects decarbonization costs	[51]
India	Challenges specific to hydropower development		[56]
Kuwait	Implementation of high-energy performance designs for residential buildings	Addressing the impact of subsidization on energy performance	[43]
Saudi Arabia	Development of large-scale photovoltaic power plants to meet energy demands	Implementing energy policies that consider the relationship between electricity consumption and CO2 emissions	[43]
UAE	The transition towards RE while maintaining current energy needs	Carbon emissions reduction and achieving a 50% increase in clean energy supply by 2050	[43]
Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain	Increasing energy demand and cost of intermittency with renewable energy	Urbanization linked to environmental degradation	[59]

Table 3. Challenges in aligning energy security with climate change mitigation.

Country/Region	Energy Security Challenges	Climate Change Challenges	Ref.
(a) Region
Africa	Dominance of large hydropower	Inconsistency in defining “renewable” vs. “sustainable”	[66]
ASEAN region, Indonesia	Balancing energy security and climate change issues, implementation of regional plans	Consideration of CO2 mitigation in generation planning, emphasis on renewable energy	[35]
Asia	Affordability and process technologies, dependence on fossil fuels, infrastructure, and investment for sustainable energy	Balancing energy demand with economic growth, strengthening policies for renewables	[54]
Developing countries	Increasing energy intensity due to urbanization, challenges in the power generation sector	Population and economic growth driving GHG emissions, environmental impacts of renewable technologies	[63]
EU	Balancing energy independence with emission reduction, implementing market-based instruments for EE	Issues with biomass and biofuel use, the potential overlap of certificates, and emission reduction units	[37]
	Energy import dependency, mainly from Russia, rising costs, and political challenges. Energy import dependency increased to 60.6%, potentially risking energy security. Rising energy costs challenging energy affordability.	Transitioning to renewable energy (RE) generation to meet expanding energy demand and achieve carbon neutrality. Need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to zero by 2050 and contending with the economic, social, and political ramifications of this transition. EU greenhouse gas emissions fell by 31% in 2020 compared to 1990, indicating progress towards carbon neutrality targets.	[40]
Europe (developed countries), Latin America, Africa (developing countries), Chile	Balancing security of supply with sustainability	Different emphasis on mitigation based on development status, opposition to coal and hydro projects in Chile	[38]
GCC	Hydrocarbon sector dominance, weak diversification achievements, problems with energy price reforms	High ecological footprint, low air quality, need for new technologies and energy–environmental policy improvements	[42]
	Need for tariff reforms, investments, and international collaborations. Development and integration of RE resources, microgrids, and technology-related goals. Ensuring energy security while keeping costs low for basic consumption needs.	High energy consumption in buildings, requiring energy efficiency improvements. Overcoming political, legislative, technological, and environmental hurdles in RE policy implementation. Addressing the environmental impacts of solar technologies, such as dust accumulation affecting solar device performance.	[43]
Global	Fossil fuel scarcity, energy security for import-reliant countries, need for government intervention and innovation, technological advancements relying on non-RES, and the impact of nuclear energy consumption	Environmental degradation, varying levels of environmental sustainability, fossil emissions driving green energy innovations, potential environmental degradation from natural resource usage	[36,40,44]
Global (with a focus on the EU)	Uneven distribution of biomass resource needs for harmonized policies and standards, the establishment of trade frameworks for bioenergy	Sustainable production and consumption of bioenergy	[61]
Global (with mention of South Korea)	Limited availability of natural resources, reliance on specific energy sources	Balancing stable energy supply with economic and environmental concerns, managing high GHG emissions in power generation	[65]
Global (with mention of the EU)	Need for coherent governance systems, requirement of country-specific energy transition policies	Designing clear political objectives for emissions reduction, reorientation of fuel subsidies towards new technologies	[41]
MENA	Dependence on hydrocarbons, need for renewable energy and innovation, political stability	Carbon emissions, underdeveloped research in carbon neutrality, economic growth impacting climate mitigation	[46]
	Evaluation of energy security through the Environmental Energy Security Index, diversified energy mix	Implementation of renewable energy initiatives for carbon neutrality, environmental Kuznets curve in high-income countries	[47]
South Asian region	Energy shortages, lack of access to clean energy, reliance on imported energy	Air pollution, climate vulnerability, natural resource degradation	[50]
(b) Countries
China, United Kingdom, Kenya, Bangladesh	Underutilization of renewables in China, optimizing resources in the UK, increasing efficiency in Kenya	Ecological concerns and alternative energy sources in Bangladesh	[52]
Ghana (developing countries’ context)	Fast-growing energy demands with financial constraints, reliance on fossil fuels, hydropower, and traditional biomass	Rapid growth in energy demand affects decarbonization costs	[51]
India	Challenges specific to hydropower development		[56]
Kuwait	Implementation of high-energy performance designs for residential buildings	Addressing the impact of subsidization on energy performance	[43]
Saudi Arabia	Development of large-scale photovoltaic power plants to meet energy demands	Implementing energy policies that consider the relationship between electricity consumption and CO2 emissions	[43]
UAE	The transition towards RE while maintaining current energy needs	Carbon emissions reduction and achieving a 50% increase in clean energy supply by 2050	[43]
Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain	Increasing energy demand and cost of intermittency with renewable energy	Urbanization linked to environmental degradation	[59]

6. Examining Specific Case Studies: Energy Policies and Environmental Sustainability

Various countries across the globe have adopted energy policies to tackle the pressing need for environmental sustainability. Multiple studies have analyzed these policies, and their environmental impact is summarized in Table 4.

Renewable energy has gained popularity in many regions as a strategy to address environmental concerns. In Thessaloniki, Greece, a thorough evaluation of renewable energy companies was conducted using the PROMETHEE II method [67]. PROMETHEE II stands for “Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluations II,” a multi-criteria method for ranking and decision making. This method helped develop and promote the renewable energy market through the Internet, focusing on the energy policies in the EU and Greece and the status of the renewable energy market in Greece. The evaluation analyzed 30 renewable energy companies in the prefecture of Thessaloniki and ranked them based on various criteria. This approach was implemented in ASEAN, India, China, South Korea, and Japan, resulting in diversified energy supplies, improved EE, and a significant reduction in carbon emissions [54]. Moreover, countries like Kenya, China, Bangladesh, and the UK have embarked on ventures to promote renewable energy, significantly reducing pollution and decreasing reliance on fossil fuels. The UK has achieved a remarkable feat in renewable energy, surpassing fossil fuels in electricity generation [52].

Decarbonization and EE measures have gained significant traction as effective instruments in promoting sustainability. In pursuit of sustainability, the Baltic states introduced the Flexible Kyoto Mechanism and financial support. This mechanism refers to the economic mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol designed to reduce the overall costs of achieving greenhouse gas emissions targets. The mechanisms include Emissions Trading, Joint Implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). They fund projects to reduce emissions in developing countries and economies in transition. These financial incentives encourage countries to reduce carbon emissions and help meet sustainability goals. These measures have improved the end-use of energy and markedly decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants [37].

Several cities and institutions have implemented measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainability. For instance, Foggia in Italy used the Urban Carbon Footprint (UCF) methodology to identify sectors with high GHG emissions and proposed actionable reduction strategies [68]. Austria, Germany, and Croatia have also made efforts to decarbonize their energy systems by growing renewable power sources and lowering reliance on fossil fuels, ensuring significant reductions in carbon emissions [40]. Additionally, the University of Turin in Italy released the UniToGO initiative, which has brought about terrific reductions in primary power consumption and stepped forward EE [69]. This initiative is part of the University’s broader dedication to sustainability, encompassing diverse aspects which include promoting green mobility, undertaking sustainability reporting, and fostering a tradition of environmental obligation [70,71].

The experiences of Germany and Britain provide valuable insights into carbon pricing and reduction mechanisms. Both countries realized that increasing carbon prices and renewable subsidies can effectively reduce carbon emissions [53]. Meanwhile, Sulawesi in Indonesia created a long-term generation expansion plan incorporating CO₂ emission limitations, leading to significant reductions in CO₂ emissions [35]. The United States also invested in renewable energy research, development, and demonstration (RERDD) budgets, which helped achieve environmental sustainability goals such as reducing CO₂ emissions. This strategic investment has yielded positive results, including significant reductions in CO₂ emissions [72].

Adopting RPS in the US has helped promote renewable energy, reducing emissions and other benefits [49]. RPS, or renewable electricity standards, are regulatory measures that require electric utilities to produce or procure a specific percentage of their electricity from RESs. State or local governments set these standards to encourage the use of renewable energy, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote economic development within the renewable energy sector.

In addition, electrification and energy diversification are also important areas to explore. Ghana’s National Electrification Scheme has successfully increased the country’s electrification rate to 84% in 2017 [51]. Hawaii Island’s Sustainable Energy Plan has also effectively reduced primary energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions, with renewable energy addressing a significant portion of energy demand [73]. Furthermore, countries in the Asia–Pacific region (such as China, India, Japan, Pakistan, and South Korea) have collaborated to evaluate the environmental implications of nuclear energy consumption and technological advancements. The results have highlighted the benefits of nuclear and renewable energy, providing a potential pathway for future energy strategies [36].

In the MENA region, there is a growing emphasis on the economic, financial, and political factors that drive the deployment of renewable energy. Innovations in governance and technology are critical in meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The Environmental Energy Security Index (EESI) is a valuable tool for gaining a more nuanced understanding of energy security that incorporates environmental considerations [46,47]. On the other hand, the GCC depends heavily on the hydrocarbon sector, but their efforts to implement environmental protection and sustainable production policies have not been entirely successful. Due to the prevalence of state capitalism in these countries, diversifying their economy and adopting efficient energy–environmental policies has been challenging. Therefore, the research suggests that a shift towards renewable energies, such as solar and wind power, is necessary to ensure a sustainable and environmentally responsible energy sector [42].

Several notable programs focused on enterprise and emission monitoring have demonstrated their potential in specific regions. For instance, China’s implementation of the Top-1000 Enterprises Energy-Saving Program and the National Emissions Monitoring Program are excellent examples. While the former had a modest effect on energy outcomes, the latter significantly reduced SO₂ emissions [55]. These varied energy policies across different regions highlight the need for multifaceted approaches to address environmental challenges. These case studies indicate that well-designed and tailored policy interventions are crucial in guiding humanity towards a more sustainable future.

Table 4. Comparative analyses of energy policies and their impact on environmental sustainability.

Country/Region	Policy/Action	Description/Methodology	Measurable Outcomes	Reference
(a) Region
ASEAN, India, China, South Korea, Japan	Promotion of clean and renewable energy	Analysis of investments and policies for clean and renewable energy	Carbon emission reduction, diversification of energy supplies, enhancement of EE	[54]
Asia Pacific (China, India, Japan, Pakistan, South Korea)	Nuclear energy consumption, technological advancements, RESs	Impact of nuclear energy consumption, tech advancements, and renewable and non-RESs on carbon footprints	Improved environmental quality through nuclear and renewable energy; recommended investment in nuclear energy and tech innovation; encouraged regulatory tactics and energy modernization; support for environmentally friendly technologies and policies	[36]
Baltic states	Flexible Kyoto Mechanism, financial support for EE and renewables	Assessment of policies on EU sustainable energy development targets using various indicators	End-use EE, use of renewables, combined heat and power use, security of energy supply, reduction in greenhouse gases and other pollutant emissions	[37]
GCC	Environmental and energy policies	Explored policies implemented to protect the environment and empower sustainable consumption and production	Found that current policies are not enough to generate sustainable consumption and production; recommended enhancing movements toward the free market economy and renewable energy	[42]
	Feed-in tariffs (FIT) and energy auctions	Planning, grant and subsidy allocation, collaboration between public and private sectors	Encourages renewable energy use and reduces electricity consumption and CO2 emissions.	[43]
MENA	Renewable energy deployment	Analyzed economic, financial, and political variables, including innovation, for renewable energy deployment using the PSTR model	Identification of governance, innovation, political stability, and financial development as main drivers	[46]
	Environmental Energy Security Index (EESI)	Developed EESI with nine sub-indicators to quantify energy security considering social and environmental aspects	Yemen, Morocco, and Algeria ranked high on EESI, suggesting recommendations for energy mix diversification and energy-efficient technologies	[47]
	Carbon neutrality research	Implemented heterogeneous and second-generation panel data techniques to investigate the roles of renewable energy, economic growth, and government effectiveness	Found that government effectiveness and renewable energy contribute to carbon neutrality; economic growth initially delays it	[48]
(b) Countries
Austria, Germany, Croatia	Decarbonization and diversification of energy systems	Use of RES	Reduction in carbon emissions from energy generation	[40]
China	Top-1000 Enterprises Energy-Saving Program; National Emissions Monitoring Program for Key Polluting Sources	Targets energy intensity and imposes quantitative targets on SO2 emissions	Limited effects on energy and pollution outcomes for the energy intensity policy; significant reductions in SO2 emissions and cuts in direct coal use for the SO2 emissions policy	[55]
Germany, Britain	Carbon pricing, renewable subsidies	Effectiveness of carbon pricing and renewable subsidies in reducing carbon emissions	Reduction in carbon emissions due to higher carbon prices in Britain; emissions abatement through wind and solar power in both countries	[53]
Ghana	National Electrification Scheme	Reducing energy poverty and increasing electrification rates	Achieved 84% electrification in 2017	[51]
Greece (Thessaloniki)	Promotion of renewable energy	Evaluation of websites of renewable energy enterprises using the PROMETHEE II method	Not explicitly mentioned in the provided snippet	[67]
Hawaii Island	Sustainable Energy Plan	Reduction in demand for primary energy through efficiency measures, renewable generation, and reduced use of fossil fuels	Reduction in GHG emissions; 46% of energy demand met by renewable generation; Hawaii Island released 1.96 Mt CO2-eq of GHG in 2006	[73]
Indonesia (Sulawesi)	Long-term generation expansion planning	Considering CO2 emission limitations and the target for a 31% renewable energy mix in 2050	Increase in renewable energy mix to 32.39% by 2050; reduction in CO2 emissions to 27.04 million tons; 29% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030; reduction in CO2 emission production by 36.1% by 2030 and 38.4% by 2050	[35]
Italy (Foggia)	Reduction in GHG emissions	Urban Carbon Footprint (UCF) methodology to calculate spatial UCF	Identification of economic sectors with high GHG emissions suggested actions for emission reduction	[68]
Italy (University of Turin)	UniTo energy plan through UniToGO	Reduce primary energy consumption, improve building EE, and increase energy from renewables	Reduced primary energy consumption; increased renewable energy usage; improved ranking in GreenMetric World University Rankings	[69]
Kenya, China, Bangladesh, UK	Various energy policies promoting renewables	Development of solar power plants, wind farms, geothermal sources, hydroelectric, wind, solar heating, and geothermal energy	Reduction in pollution; reduced reliance on fossil fuels; renewable electricity overtaking fossil fuels in the UK	[52]
Saudi Arabia	The techno-economic potential of the solar industry	Focused on the development and sustainability of the solar industry	Growth in solar energy production and potential for future energy security	[43]
UAE	Pearl Rating System	Implementation of energy and environmental sustainability ratings for building designs	Integration of green energy technology in about 70% of buildings	[43]
	Energy Demand Side Management (DSM) and energy efficiency	Implementation of energy performance standards, district cooling networks	Reduction in peak electricity demand and overall energy demand	[43]
	2050 Energy Plan	Aims for a reduction in electricity consumption and an increase in clean energy supply	Reduction of 14% in peak demand by 2021, 40% in electricity consumption by 2050, and 30% in Dubai by 2030	[43]
	Retrofit Program	Energy savings and carbon emissions’ reduction through building design changes	Savings of 7550 GWh/year in electricity consumption, reduction of 4.5 million tons/year in carbon emissions	[43]
United States	Public renewable energy research and development (RERDD) budgets	Investigation of the impact of RERDD budgets and economic policy uncertainty (EPU) on CO2 emissions	Reduction in CO2 emissions, asymmetric effects of EPU on environmental policies	[72]
	RPS	Effectiveness of RPS in promoting renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions	Increased renewable energy capacity and generation; reduced emissions; job creation; health co-benefits of renewable energy policy	[49]

Table 4. Comparative analyses of energy policies and their impact on environmental sustainability.

Country/Region	Policy/Action	Description/Methodology	Measurable Outcomes	Reference
(a) Region
ASEAN, India, China, South Korea, Japan	Promotion of clean and renewable energy	Analysis of investments and policies for clean and renewable energy	Carbon emission reduction, diversification of energy supplies, enhancement of EE	[54]
Asia Pacific (China, India, Japan, Pakistan, South Korea)	Nuclear energy consumption, technological advancements, RESs	Impact of nuclear energy consumption, tech advancements, and renewable and non-RESs on carbon footprints	Improved environmental quality through nuclear and renewable energy; recommended investment in nuclear energy and tech innovation; encouraged regulatory tactics and energy modernization; support for environmentally friendly technologies and policies	[36]
Baltic states	Flexible Kyoto Mechanism, financial support for EE and renewables	Assessment of policies on EU sustainable energy development targets using various indicators	End-use EE, use of renewables, combined heat and power use, security of energy supply, reduction in greenhouse gases and other pollutant emissions	[37]
GCC	Environmental and energy policies	Explored policies implemented to protect the environment and empower sustainable consumption and production	Found that current policies are not enough to generate sustainable consumption and production; recommended enhancing movements toward the free market economy and renewable energy	[42]
	Feed-in tariffs (FIT) and energy auctions	Planning, grant and subsidy allocation, collaboration between public and private sectors	Encourages renewable energy use and reduces electricity consumption and CO2 emissions.	[43]
MENA	Renewable energy deployment	Analyzed economic, financial, and political variables, including innovation, for renewable energy deployment using the PSTR model	Identification of governance, innovation, political stability, and financial development as main drivers	[46]
	Environmental Energy Security Index (EESI)	Developed EESI with nine sub-indicators to quantify energy security considering social and environmental aspects	Yemen, Morocco, and Algeria ranked high on EESI, suggesting recommendations for energy mix diversification and energy-efficient technologies	[47]
	Carbon neutrality research	Implemented heterogeneous and second-generation panel data techniques to investigate the roles of renewable energy, economic growth, and government effectiveness	Found that government effectiveness and renewable energy contribute to carbon neutrality; economic growth initially delays it	[48]
(b) Countries
Austria, Germany, Croatia	Decarbonization and diversification of energy systems	Use of RES	Reduction in carbon emissions from energy generation	[40]
China	Top-1000 Enterprises Energy-Saving Program; National Emissions Monitoring Program for Key Polluting Sources	Targets energy intensity and imposes quantitative targets on SO2 emissions	Limited effects on energy and pollution outcomes for the energy intensity policy; significant reductions in SO2 emissions and cuts in direct coal use for the SO2 emissions policy	[55]
Germany, Britain	Carbon pricing, renewable subsidies	Effectiveness of carbon pricing and renewable subsidies in reducing carbon emissions	Reduction in carbon emissions due to higher carbon prices in Britain; emissions abatement through wind and solar power in both countries	[53]
Ghana	National Electrification Scheme	Reducing energy poverty and increasing electrification rates	Achieved 84% electrification in 2017	[51]
Greece (Thessaloniki)	Promotion of renewable energy	Evaluation of websites of renewable energy enterprises using the PROMETHEE II method	Not explicitly mentioned in the provided snippet	[67]
Hawaii Island	Sustainable Energy Plan	Reduction in demand for primary energy through efficiency measures, renewable generation, and reduced use of fossil fuels	Reduction in GHG emissions; 46% of energy demand met by renewable generation; Hawaii Island released 1.96 Mt CO2-eq of GHG in 2006	[73]
Indonesia (Sulawesi)	Long-term generation expansion planning	Considering CO2 emission limitations and the target for a 31% renewable energy mix in 2050	Increase in renewable energy mix to 32.39% by 2050; reduction in CO2 emissions to 27.04 million tons; 29% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030; reduction in CO2 emission production by 36.1% by 2030 and 38.4% by 2050	[35]
Italy (Foggia)	Reduction in GHG emissions	Urban Carbon Footprint (UCF) methodology to calculate spatial UCF	Identification of economic sectors with high GHG emissions suggested actions for emission reduction	[68]
Italy (University of Turin)	UniTo energy plan through UniToGO	Reduce primary energy consumption, improve building EE, and increase energy from renewables	Reduced primary energy consumption; increased renewable energy usage; improved ranking in GreenMetric World University Rankings	[69]
Kenya, China, Bangladesh, UK	Various energy policies promoting renewables	Development of solar power plants, wind farms, geothermal sources, hydroelectric, wind, solar heating, and geothermal energy	Reduction in pollution; reduced reliance on fossil fuels; renewable electricity overtaking fossil fuels in the UK	[52]
Saudi Arabia	The techno-economic potential of the solar industry	Focused on the development and sustainability of the solar industry	Growth in solar energy production and potential for future energy security	[43]
UAE	Pearl Rating System	Implementation of energy and environmental sustainability ratings for building designs	Integration of green energy technology in about 70% of buildings	[43]
	Energy Demand Side Management (DSM) and energy efficiency	Implementation of energy performance standards, district cooling networks	Reduction in peak electricity demand and overall energy demand	[43]
	2050 Energy Plan	Aims for a reduction in electricity consumption and an increase in clean energy supply	Reduction of 14% in peak demand by 2021, 40% in electricity consumption by 2050, and 30% in Dubai by 2030	[43]
	Retrofit Program	Energy savings and carbon emissions’ reduction through building design changes	Savings of 7550 GWh/year in electricity consumption, reduction of 4.5 million tons/year in carbon emissions	[43]
United States	Public renewable energy research and development (RERDD) budgets	Investigation of the impact of RERDD budgets and economic policy uncertainty (EPU) on CO2 emissions	Reduction in CO2 emissions, asymmetric effects of EPU on environmental policies	[72]
	RPS	Effectiveness of RPS in promoting renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions	Increased renewable energy capacity and generation; reduced emissions; job creation; health co-benefits of renewable energy policy	[49]

7. Renewables at the Forefront: Shaping a Secure and Sustainable Energy Future

The world has increasingly used renewable energy technologies to address the challenges of dwindling conventional energy reserves and escalating environmental concerns [30]. Renewable energy technologies offer a promising avenue to address energy security and environmental sustainability. This section explores the transformative impact of renewables by examining their role in fortifying global energy security and driving environmental stewardship. A comprehensive analysis of the effects of global renewable energy technologies on energy security and environmental sustainability is given in Table 5.

The shift towards renewable technologies has significant implications for energy security and the environment, requiring a thorough analysis to understand its impact [50]. Renewable energy technologies have contributed to global energy security, as evidenced by increased cross-border investments in South Asian countries [54]. Furthermore, the emphasis on renewable energy sources (RESs) within the European Union, especially in regions like Greece’s prefecture of Thessaloniki, reinforces this observation [50,67]. Countries like Ghana and Chile have diversified their energy sources, heavily leaning towards renewables, significantly reducing their dependence on fossil fuels, and ensuring a more stable and consistent energy supply [38,51]. Technological advancements such as deriving biohydrogen from microalgae have significantly reduced global dependence on fossil fuels [74]. Powerhouses like India, China, and South Korea are progressively adopting RESs to meet their increasing energy demands [54].

Renewable energy provides several diverse environmental benefits [39,56,75]. RESs are crucial in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and protecting the environment [50,67]. Carbon-neutral technologies, like biohydrogen, further emphasize the environmental benefits of renewable energy [74]. The South Asian zone and the European Union have shown significant commitments to decarbonizing electricity through RESs, which is a testament to their importance [61]. Countries like India gradually favor renewables over conventional thermal power plants, signifying their strategic importance [76]. For instance, India’s bioenergy crops and hydropower initiatives contribute to environmental conservation. Similarly, Portugal, China, and the UK have shown that renewables can be transformative in fighting pollution and tackling climate change [52,59]. Such portfolios enhance energy security and contribute significantly to economic growth. The substantial investments in RESs highlight this shift into research, development, and demonstration, indicating a collective move away from traditional energy sources [72,77]. Additionally, the growth of innovative technologies, such as microalgae-based biofuels, emphasizes the global effort to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels [78]. Adopting RESs in specific regions, such as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), promotes greater energy independence [58]. Therefore, the global shift towards renewable energy technologies indicates their significant role in the future energy landscape.

The MENA and GCC regions have vast reserves of oil and gas, which play a crucial part in global energy markets. However, the control and distribution of these resources are influenced by political tensions and alliances in the region, which can cause price fluctuations. Despite being rich in hydrocarbons, these countries are also investing in RESs to ensure long-term energy security and reduce the impact of climate change. However, geopolitical dynamics can affect these efforts, as regional cooperation can aid unified climate strategies, but existing power structures hinder them by maintaining the status quo. Climate agreements and policies to reduce emissions must also balance global commitments with immediate economic interests shaped by regional dynamics [46,79].

The path towards a future powered by RESs holds much promise but also faces several challenges. Therefore, it is essential to acknowledge that such challenges exist. For example, one of the most pressing issues is ensuring the trade of sustainable bioenergy, particularly within the European Union [61]. Furthermore, while hydropower has significant potential, it raises ecological concerns. Conversely, alternative energy sources such as solar and wind are more sustainable options. Nonetheless, such RESs are challenged concerning their sustainable and continuous use regardless of weather or sunshine conditions. Combining various RESs such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy sources with thermal energy storage (TES) technologies can ensure the sustainable utilization of RESs. Furthermore, better EE, hydrogen production, and reduced dependence on fossil fuels can be achieved [30]. Additionally, there is a potential for hybrid systems to boost the utilization of renewable energy. A collaborative approach among academia, industry, and policymakers, along with standardized metrics, can facilitate the advancement of RES-TES technologies that significantly contribute to a sustainable and low-carbon energy future [30].

Table 5. Impact of global renewable energy technologies on energy security and environmental sustainability.

Region/Country	Renewable Energy Technology	Impact on Energy Security	Impact on Environmental Sustainability	Ref.
(a) Regions
Africa	Hydropower, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal	Mitigates energy insecurity due to diversified energy sources.	Mixed: Hydropower may have negative impacts on ecosystems, while others, like solar and wind, are highly sustainable.	[66]
ASEAN	General renewables (focus on Asian countries’ efforts)	Emphasizes the role of science, technology, and collaborations in meeting energy demands.	Highlights transitioning to renewables to combat climate change, but specific impacts are not detailed.	[54]
Baltic States (Specifically Latvia)	Renewable electricity, hydro (Latvia), wind farms (Latvia), biomass	Improved energy generation from renewables due to policy measures.	Aids in reducing environmental impact and mitigating climate change. Policy schemes also have positive results.	[37]
BIMSTEC	General renewables	Transitioning from fossils to renewables is highlighted for energy security. Technological innovation plays a role.	Reduction in carbon footprint and environmental impacts. References the potential for 100% renewable electricity.	[80]
European Union	Hydropower, wind (onshore and offshore), solar	Helps enhance energy security by reducing dependence on non-renewables and through energy storage solutions	Significant reduction in emissions and improved results for climate change.	[81]
	Bioenergy, biomass	The growth of the bioenergy trade is aimed at diversifying fuel sources for increased domestic energy supplies.	Emphasizes the need for EU-level standards and certification to ensure bioenergy sustainability. Potential negative impacts must be addressed.	[61]
	RESs	Safeguards energy security and promotes energy independence. Significant in achieving energy supply safety as highlighted in EU energy policy.	Strengthens environmental protection and addresses climate change. Decarbonization of electricity generation through RESs contributes to natural environment preservation.	[67]
GCC	Solar and nuclear energy	Contributes to a stable energy supply and mitigates the impact of oil market volatility.	Helps to achieve the SDGs and reduces the carbon footprint of the energy sector.	[79]
	General renewable energy	Strengthens energy independence, reduces reliance on energy imports.	Reduces GHG emissions, mitigates climate change.	[58]
	RES, support mechanisms (e.g., feed-in tariffs, auctions)	Enhancement of energy security through RE technologies and national energy authority initiatives. Regional grid development to cope with peak energy demands.	Promotes diverse RESs for environmental sustainability and long-term economic benefits.	[43]
MENA	Solar, wind, biomass	Enhances energy diversity and reduces reliance on fossil fuels, improving energy independence.	Significant potential to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change.	[48]
South Asian region	Various renewable energy technologies	Enhanced energy security through effective utilization of RESs. Increased cross-border renewable energy investment and trade contribute to regional energy security.	Mitigation of climate change through the adoption of RES. Emphasis on incorporating renewables to address environmental challenges.	[50]
(b) Countries
Canada	Bioenergy feedstock	Emphasizes the need for accurate estimates of potential feedstock production for sound bioenergy policies, but does not delve deeply into energy security.	Bioenergy can lead to a net reduction in greenhouse gas production in the long term, contributing to environmental sustainability.	[82]
Chile	Large hydro projects	Contributes to achieving a low carbon economy.	Renewable energy, including hydro projects, plays a role in achieving environmental sustainability.	[38]
Germany, United Kingdom	Wind, solar power	Inferred to promote energy independence and diversification.	Contributes to the reduction in GHG emissions, mitigates climate change effects.	[53]
Ghana	Solar, wind, biomass, hydro	Enhances energy security by diversifying energy sources and reducing dependence on fossil fuels	Mitigates greenhouse gas emissions and contributes to environmental sustainability.	[51]
Hawaii Island	Not specified	Reduction in fossil fuel use and increased fuel diversity enhance energy security.	Achieving environmental sustainability by reducing demand for primary energy and shifting to renewable supplies.	[73]
India	Small hydropower, wind energy, solar photovoltaic energy, garbage for power generation	Advocates for focusing on renewable/non-conventional energy resources instead of new thermal power stations.	Essential for reducing CO2 emissions and promoting afforestation.	[76]
Italy	Electricity from biogas	Reducing dependence on fossil fuels if managed sustainably.	Contributing to reducing GHG emissions requires careful management of environmental issues like energy crop production, methane losses, and feedstock transport for long-term sustainability.	[83]
Kenya, China, Bangladesh, United Kingdom	Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal	Reduction in dependence on fossil fuels, improved energy security	Reduction in pollution, mitigation of climate change impacts	[63]
Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain	General renewable energy	Supports environmental sustainability targets	Reduction in CO2 emissions	[52]
Saudi Arabia	Solar energy	Contributes to the techno-economic potential of the renewable energy sector	Aids in sustainable energy production aligned with Saudi Vision 2030	[43]
South Korea	Hydropower	Renewable energy enhances supply stability and economy, especially considering fuel prices and fluctuations.	Its high contribution is due to low greenhouse gas emissions and its nature as a pure domestic energy source.	[65]
Sulawesi, Indonesia	Variable renewable energy (VRE) power plants	Considered for long-term generation expansion planning.	Reduced CO2 emissions, albeit with increased costs.	[59]
UAE	Solar and clean energy projects	Provides a robust alternative to oil, ensuring long-term energy security	Aids in meeting national and international environmental commitments and reducing GHG emissions.	[46]
	Pearl Rating System for Building Designs, 2050 Energy Plan, various renewable energy technologies	Increases energy efficiency and rationalization, reducing costs; aims for a 50% increase in clean energy supply.	Integration of green energy technology in buildings and support for sustainable building sector trends.	[43]
United States	Renewable energy technologies (focus on research and development)	Does not explicitly mention the impact on energy security.	Investing in renewable energy technologies can reduce CO2 emissions, highlighting the role of research and development.	[72]
(c) General (global context)
General (global context)	RESs	RE significantly contributes to ensuring energy security. RE is projected to provide 90% of all electricity in the world by 2050.	RE has a substantial impact on decarbonization and climate policies. It addresses extreme weather conditions, rising sea levels, and biodiversity losses.	[40]
General (global context)	Wind, solar, hydrogen	Diversification of economies, protection from price swings, job creation.	Achieving carbon neutrality by 2050.	[35]
General (global context)	Hydroelectric power, solar, wind	Diversifies the energy mix, reducing reliance on a single primary source and ensuring long-term supply.	Significantly contributes to reducing CO2 emissions and mitigates climate change and air pollution.	[41]
General (global context)	Biohydrogen from microalgae	Reducing dependency on fossil fuels, thereby contributing to energy security. Biohydrogen has high energy potential and sustainability.	Sustainable and clean; helps mitigate environmental issues associated with conventional energy sources. Carbon neutrality and water production as a significant by-product denote environmental stewardship.	[74]
General (global context)	General renewables	Crucial for achieving energy security by decoupling from fossil fuel energy sources and promoting economic growth.	Supports achieving a decarbonized economy and minimizing adverse environmental impacts, particularly emissions.	[39]
General (global context)	Green energy innovation (including adoption of renewables and new technologies)	Contributes to the diversification of energy sources and decarbonization of economic productivity.	Effective in reducing GHG emissions across various sectors like power, transport, and buildings. Promotes clean and sustainable energy sources.	[44]
General (global context)	Renewable energy research development and demonstration (RERDD)	Emphasizes reducing reliance on traditional energy sources to improve energy security.	While investment in RERDD promotes clean energy innovation, current budgets are insufficient for significant CO2 emission reductions.	[77]
General (global context)	Generic (not specified)	Not explicitly mentioned.	A sustainable economic model based on renewables could limit the environmental impacts of energy production.	[84]
General (global context)	Bioenergy (liquid fuel)	Reduces dependence on petroleum.	Ethanol may have a minor environmental impact compared to gasoline, and perennial bioenergy crops can contribute positively.	[75]
General (global context)	General renewable energy (mention of photovoltaic panels and wind farms)	Importance in transforming the energy system.	Reduction in pollutant emissions, but potential impacts on ecosystems must be addressed.	[55]
General (global context)	Microalgae biofuels	Reduces reliance on fossil fuels, provides sustainable energy resource.	Mitigates greenhouse gas emissions and treats wastewater efficiently.	[78]

Table 5. Impact of global renewable energy technologies on energy security and environmental sustainability.

Region/Country	Renewable Energy Technology	Impact on Energy Security	Impact on Environmental Sustainability	Ref.
(a) Regions
Africa	Hydropower, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal	Mitigates energy insecurity due to diversified energy sources.	Mixed: Hydropower may have negative impacts on ecosystems, while others, like solar and wind, are highly sustainable.	[66]
ASEAN	General renewables (focus on Asian countries’ efforts)	Emphasizes the role of science, technology, and collaborations in meeting energy demands.	Highlights transitioning to renewables to combat climate change, but specific impacts are not detailed.	[54]
Baltic States (Specifically Latvia)	Renewable electricity, hydro (Latvia), wind farms (Latvia), biomass	Improved energy generation from renewables due to policy measures.	Aids in reducing environmental impact and mitigating climate change. Policy schemes also have positive results.	[37]
BIMSTEC	General renewables	Transitioning from fossils to renewables is highlighted for energy security. Technological innovation plays a role.	Reduction in carbon footprint and environmental impacts. References the potential for 100% renewable electricity.	[80]
European Union	Hydropower, wind (onshore and offshore), solar	Helps enhance energy security by reducing dependence on non-renewables and through energy storage solutions	Significant reduction in emissions and improved results for climate change.	[81]
	Bioenergy, biomass	The growth of the bioenergy trade is aimed at diversifying fuel sources for increased domestic energy supplies.	Emphasizes the need for EU-level standards and certification to ensure bioenergy sustainability. Potential negative impacts must be addressed.	[61]
	RESs	Safeguards energy security and promotes energy independence. Significant in achieving energy supply safety as highlighted in EU energy policy.	Strengthens environmental protection and addresses climate change. Decarbonization of electricity generation through RESs contributes to natural environment preservation.	[67]
GCC	Solar and nuclear energy	Contributes to a stable energy supply and mitigates the impact of oil market volatility.	Helps to achieve the SDGs and reduces the carbon footprint of the energy sector.	[79]
	General renewable energy	Strengthens energy independence, reduces reliance on energy imports.	Reduces GHG emissions, mitigates climate change.	[58]
	RES, support mechanisms (e.g., feed-in tariffs, auctions)	Enhancement of energy security through RE technologies and national energy authority initiatives. Regional grid development to cope with peak energy demands.	Promotes diverse RESs for environmental sustainability and long-term economic benefits.	[43]
MENA	Solar, wind, biomass	Enhances energy diversity and reduces reliance on fossil fuels, improving energy independence.	Significant potential to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change.	[48]
South Asian region	Various renewable energy technologies	Enhanced energy security through effective utilization of RESs. Increased cross-border renewable energy investment and trade contribute to regional energy security.	Mitigation of climate change through the adoption of RES. Emphasis on incorporating renewables to address environmental challenges.	[50]
(b) Countries
Canada	Bioenergy feedstock	Emphasizes the need for accurate estimates of potential feedstock production for sound bioenergy policies, but does not delve deeply into energy security.	Bioenergy can lead to a net reduction in greenhouse gas production in the long term, contributing to environmental sustainability.	[82]
Chile	Large hydro projects	Contributes to achieving a low carbon economy.	Renewable energy, including hydro projects, plays a role in achieving environmental sustainability.	[38]
Germany, United Kingdom	Wind, solar power	Inferred to promote energy independence and diversification.	Contributes to the reduction in GHG emissions, mitigates climate change effects.	[53]
Ghana	Solar, wind, biomass, hydro	Enhances energy security by diversifying energy sources and reducing dependence on fossil fuels	Mitigates greenhouse gas emissions and contributes to environmental sustainability.	[51]
Hawaii Island	Not specified	Reduction in fossil fuel use and increased fuel diversity enhance energy security.	Achieving environmental sustainability by reducing demand for primary energy and shifting to renewable supplies.	[73]
India	Small hydropower, wind energy, solar photovoltaic energy, garbage for power generation	Advocates for focusing on renewable/non-conventional energy resources instead of new thermal power stations.	Essential for reducing CO2 emissions and promoting afforestation.	[76]
Italy	Electricity from biogas	Reducing dependence on fossil fuels if managed sustainably.	Contributing to reducing GHG emissions requires careful management of environmental issues like energy crop production, methane losses, and feedstock transport for long-term sustainability.	[83]
Kenya, China, Bangladesh, United Kingdom	Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal	Reduction in dependence on fossil fuels, improved energy security	Reduction in pollution, mitigation of climate change impacts	[63]
Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain	General renewable energy	Supports environmental sustainability targets	Reduction in CO2 emissions	[52]
Saudi Arabia	Solar energy	Contributes to the techno-economic potential of the renewable energy sector	Aids in sustainable energy production aligned with Saudi Vision 2030	[43]
South Korea	Hydropower	Renewable energy enhances supply stability and economy, especially considering fuel prices and fluctuations.	Its high contribution is due to low greenhouse gas emissions and its nature as a pure domestic energy source.	[65]
Sulawesi, Indonesia	Variable renewable energy (VRE) power plants	Considered for long-term generation expansion planning.	Reduced CO2 emissions, albeit with increased costs.	[59]
UAE	Solar and clean energy projects	Provides a robust alternative to oil, ensuring long-term energy security	Aids in meeting national and international environmental commitments and reducing GHG emissions.	[46]
	Pearl Rating System for Building Designs, 2050 Energy Plan, various renewable energy technologies	Increases energy efficiency and rationalization, reducing costs; aims for a 50% increase in clean energy supply.	Integration of green energy technology in buildings and support for sustainable building sector trends.	[43]
United States	Renewable energy technologies (focus on research and development)	Does not explicitly mention the impact on energy security.	Investing in renewable energy technologies can reduce CO2 emissions, highlighting the role of research and development.	[72]
(c) General (global context)
General (global context)	RESs	RE significantly contributes to ensuring energy security. RE is projected to provide 90% of all electricity in the world by 2050.	RE has a substantial impact on decarbonization and climate policies. It addresses extreme weather conditions, rising sea levels, and biodiversity losses.	[40]
General (global context)	Wind, solar, hydrogen	Diversification of economies, protection from price swings, job creation.	Achieving carbon neutrality by 2050.	[35]
General (global context)	Hydroelectric power, solar, wind	Diversifies the energy mix, reducing reliance on a single primary source and ensuring long-term supply.	Significantly contributes to reducing CO2 emissions and mitigates climate change and air pollution.	[41]
General (global context)	Biohydrogen from microalgae	Reducing dependency on fossil fuels, thereby contributing to energy security. Biohydrogen has high energy potential and sustainability.	Sustainable and clean; helps mitigate environmental issues associated with conventional energy sources. Carbon neutrality and water production as a significant by-product denote environmental stewardship.	[74]
General (global context)	General renewables	Crucial for achieving energy security by decoupling from fossil fuel energy sources and promoting economic growth.	Supports achieving a decarbonized economy and minimizing adverse environmental impacts, particularly emissions.	[39]
General (global context)	Green energy innovation (including adoption of renewables and new technologies)	Contributes to the diversification of energy sources and decarbonization of economic productivity.	Effective in reducing GHG emissions across various sectors like power, transport, and buildings. Promotes clean and sustainable energy sources.	[44]
General (global context)	Renewable energy research development and demonstration (RERDD)	Emphasizes reducing reliance on traditional energy sources to improve energy security.	While investment in RERDD promotes clean energy innovation, current budgets are insufficient for significant CO2 emission reductions.	[77]
General (global context)	Generic (not specified)	Not explicitly mentioned.	A sustainable economic model based on renewables could limit the environmental impacts of energy production.	[84]
General (global context)	Bioenergy (liquid fuel)	Reduces dependence on petroleum.	Ethanol may have a minor environmental impact compared to gasoline, and perennial bioenergy crops can contribute positively.	[75]
General (global context)	General renewable energy (mention of photovoltaic panels and wind farms)	Importance in transforming the energy system.	Reduction in pollutant emissions, but potential impacts on ecosystems must be addressed.	[55]
General (global context)	Microalgae biofuels	Reduces reliance on fossil fuels, provides sustainable energy resource.	Mitigates greenhouse gas emissions and treats wastewater efficiently.	[78]

8. Influence of Geopolitical Dynamics on Energy Security and Climate Change Mitigation

The global energy landscape is undergoing significant transformations influenced by technological advancements and geopolitical dynamics. Countries worldwide face the challenge of ensuring energy security while mitigating the impacts of climate change. Achieving this balance requires nuanced thinking and an understanding of geopolitical factors that shape national strategies and decisions. Table 6 summarizes the research on the influence of geopolitical dynamics on energy security and climate change mitigation.

Table 6. Summary of research on the influence of geopolitical dynamics on energy security and climate change mitigation.

Country/Region	Geopolitical Dynamic Impact	Key Insights	Ref.
(a) Regions
BIMSTEC region	Interplay between tourism, globalization, and energy choices	Renewable energy boosts economic and environmental resilience	[80]
Developing nations	International commitments vs. sustainable energy solutions	The challenge of poverty mitigation and consistent energy supply	[52]
EU	Dependency on Russian energy imports, exacerbated by the Russia–Ukraine conflict	Geopolitical tensions are challenging the EU’s energy security, necessitating a shift to RE and energy diversification to achieve independence	[40]
Ganges region, India	Emissions from coal-powered plants	The challenge of curtailing emissions and ensuring the energy supply	[76]
GCC	Technology transfer and international agreements impact energy policies	RE sector’s growth is influenced by technology development, international transfers, and UN climate agreements	[43]
General (global context)	Energy source diversification and import dependence	To enhance national security, reduce dependence on energy imports	[50]
	Shift to renewable energy	Reduces geopolitical risks associated with fossil fuel dependence	[67]
MENA	Economic, financial, and political variables influence renewable energy deployment	Political stability, governance quality, financial development, and innovation are significant drivers for renewable energy deployment. Higher innovation performance is likely to bolster the impact of governance quality on renewable energy deployment.	[46]
(b) Countries
Chile	Growing population’s energy demands and low-carbon economy transition	Balancing energy needs with a low-carbon transition	[38]
China	Transitioning to energy security through economic and political strategies	China’s energy security transition involves economic and political measures, focusing on decarbonization and sustainable energy sources	[40]
Japan	Household consumption patterns influence societal dynamics	Implications on energy utilization and environmental health	[57]
Russia–Ukraine	Increase in energy prices due to conflict	Risks of relying heavily on geopolitically sensitive regions	[40]

Directly impacted by geopolitical dynamics, the security of energy supply is a crucial concern for nations. Countries often face risks due to regional conflicts and fluctuations in energy prices. The Russia–Ukraine conflict, for instance, led to a surge in energy prices, highlighting the dangers of dependency on energy from geopolitically volatile regions [40]. Enhancing national security, diversifying energy sources, and reducing reliance on imports are essential [50]. On the other hand, developing nations still grapple with the dual challenge of mitigating poverty while ensuring a consistent energy supply, even as they pivot towards more sustainable energy solutions [52]. Political instability and societal opposition further complicate the crafting of effective energy policies [56].

MENA and GCC regions, with vast oil and gas reserves, play a critical role in global energy markets. Political tensions and alliances in these regions can cause price fluctuations. Despite their hydrocarbon wealth, these countries invest in RESs to secure long-term energy and mitigate the impacts of climate change. However, geopolitical dynamics can hamper these efforts [46].

Transitioning to RESs is not only environmentally friendly, but also strategically beneficial. Opting for renewables can help countries achieve greater energy independence, thereby minimizing the geopolitical risks associated with fossil fuel dependency [67]. Renewable energy is crucial for boosting economic and environmental resilience in the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) region. The complex interplay between tourism, globalization, and energy choices makes renewable energy a key focus area in this region [80]. Notably, BIMSTEC is an international organization that promotes economic and technical cooperation among its member countries [85].

Domestic energy dynamics significantly influence countries’ strategies for balancing energy security with climate change mitigation. For instance, studies exploring household consumption patterns in Japan reveal the extensive implications of domestic consumption on energy utilization and environmental health [57]. Therefore, understanding these dynamics is essential while shaping future policies and strategies surrounding energy security and climate change mitigation.

9. Trade-Offs between Achieving Energy Security and Mitigating Climate Change: Economic and Social Considerations

Achieving a balance between energy security and climate change mitigation is an intricate global challenge. The world’s extensive dependence on fossil fuels threatens environmental sustainability and energy security [50]. This dilemma often demands trade-offs between energy security, climate mitigation, and socioeconomic factors, as highlighted in Table 7. Notably, RESs have emerged as a potential solution, with the European Union’s energy policy accentuating decarbonization, competitive pricing, and environmentally sound consumption [67]. Nonetheless, the transition to cleaner energy sources within the EU is intricate and influenced by several factors, such as trade policy, economic growth, fertility rates, and evolving energy consumption patterns [39].

Table 7. Sacrifices in achieving energy security and climate change mitigation with economic and social considerations.

Energy Security vs. Climate Change	Economic Considerations	Social Considerations	Recommendations/Strategies	Ref.
Balancing energy security with environmental sustainability; emphasis on renewable energy and decarbonizing electricity.	Energy’s role in economic growth, stability, and poverty alleviation. EU’s policy goals for competitive prices and investment in R&D for transition.	Importance of energy for social development and social acceptance of renewable energy.	Comprehensive approach with economic, social, and environmental considerations. Development and utilization of RES.	[37,39,44,50,54,67,76,80,86]
Transition from fossil fuels to cleaner technologies; sustainable energy systems to address security and climate change.	Impact of economic growth on ecological footprint. Affordability challenges. Promoting competitive markets for economic competitiveness.	Women’s participation in the labor market. Central Asian efforts in clean energy. Environmental impact of thermal plants.	Implement policies promoting sustainable practices. Introduce alternative energy systems and R&D for cleaner technologies.	[37,39,44,54,65,76,80,82,86]
Structural adjustments in energy systems; energy security in economic policy uncertainty.	Investment in R&D and economic policy impact. Challenges of fast-growing demand and reliance on natural resource exports.	Public consultation for quality of life. Public acceptability of bioenergy and efforts to reduce energy poverty.	Technological innovation to decarbonize sectors. Policy interventions and monitoring for development with environmental impact consideration.	[37,38,44,51,54,61,65,68,72,76,80,82]
Diversifying energy sources for security and climate neutrality; promoting renewables and low-carbon technologies.	Importance of energy affordability and rising cost challenges. Renewable technologies’ cost-effectiveness. Investment in nuclear energy and cleaner energy public–private partnerships.	It is not extensively discussed but includes health impacts, safety, and impact monitoring.	Increase renewable energy share, reduce energy use, and consider higher costs with emission limits. Wastewater treatment integration with microalgal cultivation. Policy instruments for effective energy codes.	[35,36,40,41,52,58,63,66,78]
Enhancing water and energy security with hydropower in India; stabilization wedge methodology for sustainable transition.	Renewable technologies’ cost-effectiveness and economic performance. Techno-economic concerns; policy interventions needed.	Importance of safety and impact monitoring. Social, technological, and economic conditions for sustainable energy.	Accelerate hydropower development with environmental and social impact considerations. A holistic approach with efficiency measures and renewable generation.	[56,73,75]
Balance and transition	Investment in local renewable resources, diversification of energy mix, technological innovations for energy savings, reduction in energy imports, shift towards low-carbon economies.	Employment shifts, public acceptance of new technologies, education, and awareness, managing transitions in fossil fuel-reliant regions, addressing energy poverty.	Encourage regional cooperation, policy reforms, sustainable energy policies, integrating renewable energy into national grids, EE standards, public and private sector partnerships, promoting green innovation.	[46,47,79]

National strategies and uncertainties further complicate this dynamic. For instance, amidst economic policy ambiguity, the UK fosters economic growth, regulates energy use, and curtails CO₂ emissions [86]. Structural shifts in energy systems, bolstered by technological progress, become crucial to harmonizing energy security, continued economic prosperity, and climate change mitigation [44]. The EU’s overarching energy strategy resonates with these objectives, emphasizing EE, boosting renewables, and considering the ramifications of policy decisions on energy prices [37]. The role of economic imperatives in these discussions is incontestable. For instance, Asia confronts affordability challenges, juxtaposing competitive markets, EE, and diversified energy sources against swift economic growth [54]. Specific regional issues, such as coal-fired power plants in India’s Ganges region, accentuate the urgency for global collaboration and technological advancements [76]. Moreover, unique challenges in urban sustainability necessitate both mitigation strategies for curbing GHG emissions and adaptation strategies for managing climate change repercussions. These challenges include upgrading existing infrastructure to increase EE and decrease greenhouse gas emissions, integrating urban planning with green spaces to improve carbon sequestration and resilience to heat events, and changing public behavior towards sustainable transportation options to reduce dependence on fossil fuels [68].

Economic policies, especially those concerning renewable energy, significantly impact environmental outcomes [72]. The EU’s aspiration to diversify energy sources by emphasizing bioenergy underscores the interrelation between economic prospects, like potential rural income sources, and the paramount objective of diminishing GHG emissions [61]. Meanwhile, developing nations like Ghana and Chile grapple with their distinct challenges (such as burgeoning energy demands in environments with limited resources, reliance on imported fuels, and the overarching ambition of achieving developed nation status), often leading to trade-offs between energy security and climate change objectives [38,51]. Various regions are tailoring their strategies accordingly. Hawaii Island, for example, leverages the stabilization wedge methodology to prioritize the cost-efficiency of renewable technologies [73], while India’s shift towards hydropower reveals the combined benefits of both water and energy security [56].

Amidst the global energy security and climate change mitigation discourse, sector-specific implications and national scenarios further accentuate the complexity. For instance, in the BIMSTEC region, the tourism sector’s impact is pivotal, underlining the pressing need for sustainable transportation and the integration of renewable energy [80]. For example, South Korea’s energy landscape embodies many broader challenges that nations worldwide face. The country must balance its reliance on imports, nuclear energy, and coal power use and the overarching objective of effectively managing greenhouse gas emissions [65]. This multifaceted scenario has spurred a greater interest in alternative energy sources. Bioenergy, for example, is garnering attention for its potential to curtail greenhouse gas emissions and counteract the escalating costs of fossil fuels [82]. Concurrently, observed shifts towards ethanol in various studies highlight proactive efforts to diminish dependence on petroleum and reduce CO₂ emissions [75].

Noteworthily, there is a complex balance between energy security and climate change mitigation in the MENA and GCC regions. While pursuing energy security through fossil fuels remains a priority, it often increases emissions and environmental damage. Meanwhile, efforts to mitigate climate change through renewable energy and green innovation have economic and social trade-offs, like the need for substantial investments and impacts on energy-related jobs. Economic considerations involve shifting investments to renewable infrastructure, which requires upfront costs and policy changes. Social considerations apply to ensuring a just transition for fossil-fuel-reliant communities. The MENA and GCC regions generally face a complex decision-making landscape where energy security, economic growth, and environmental sustainability must be carefully balanced. Economic diversification supported by technology and innovation investments seems promising but requires coordinated policies and international cooperation [46,79].

In summary, while a growing consensus exists on diversifying energy sources, enhancing renewable energy proportions, and curtailing energy consumption [40], the delicate equilibrium between energy security and climate change mitigation necessitates context-specific and culturally considerate solutions. From urban sustainability [68] and the promise of microalgae [78] to the transition towards renewables in regions traditionally reliant on hydrocarbons (such as the GCC [58]), the path forward demands nuanced, all-encompassing, and collaborative approaches for a unified energy future.

10. Effectiveness of Policy Instruments in Achieving Energy Security and Climate Change Mitigation

The energy sector constantly evolves, and policies are implemented to secure energy supplies and combat climate change. These policies include carbon pricing, renewable energy certificates, and renewable energy subsidies. However, their effectiveness and interactions in different contexts can be complex and nuanced. Table 8 presents a comparative analysis of the effectiveness and challenges of various policy instruments for energy security and climate change mitigation.

Table 8. Effectiveness and challenges of policy instruments for energy security and climate change mitigation.

Policy Instrument	Key Findings and Impacts	Limitations and Challenges	Context/Comparison	Ref.
Carbon pricing	Use a scoring system to assess policy impact on EE, renewables, and CHP. Carbon pricing efficiently reduces emissions when high enough, as evidenced by Britain’s experience. Carbon pricing is efficient but faces political resistance; combining it with flexible regulations strengthens climate policies.	Ambiguity in the comprehensive evaluation of their effectiveness. Limited research on public support for flexible regulations. Political resistance.	Focus on EU directives and sustainable energy development targets. Comparison of power sectors in Germany and Britain. Analysis of economic efficacy vs. political acceptability.	[37,49,53]
Renewable energy certificates	Market-based instruments like tradable permits and certificates promote energy-saving measures, renewable usage, and greenhouse gas reduction.	Ambiguity in comprehensive evaluation of their effectiveness.	Focus on EU directives and sustainable energy development targets.	[37]
Renewable energy subsidies	Higher carbon prices in Britain led to significant carbon reduction by decreasing coal use and increasing gas use. Wind and solar played vital roles in emissions reductions in Germany and Britain.	The study is cautious in evaluating energy security, though it suggests carbon pricing may contribute.	Comparison of power sectors in Germany and Britain.	[53]
Flexible regulations	Flexible regulations like renewable portfolio and low-carbon fuel standards have higher political acceptability. Combining flexible regulations with carbon pricing strengthens climate policies.	Limited research on public support for flexible regulations.	Analysis of economic efficacy vs. political acceptability.	[49]
Energy price reforms	Energy price reforms aim to decrease subsidies, promote fiscal balance, and discourage excessive energy use. They contribute to political stability and redistribute wealth to citizens.	Reforms can be reversed if oil prices rise, and they may negatively impact the poor and energy-intensive sectors. Weak macroeconomic conditions often challenge the effectiveness of reforms.	Compared to previous subsidy reforms, the current efforts in the GCC are more comprehensive, but still face resistance due to economic and political considerations.	[42]

Through mechanisms like carbon taxes and emissions trading schemes (ETSs), carbon pricing imposes costs on greenhouse gas emissions to incentivize reductions and drive climate-friendly technological investments. The World Bank’s “State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2023” document indicates that those tools are expanding their reach and protecting nearly 25% of worldwide emissions, signaling their growing impact and significance in the fight towards climate exchange. Additionally, renewable energy certificates (RECs) constitute the environmental attributes of renewable strength resources, including sun, wind, and hydropower. This lets manufacturers promote these benefits to entities that cannot produce or buy renewable strength. These RECs can be utilized by groups to meet Renewable Energy Portfolio Standards or to offset their carbon footprint [87].

The global landscape for carbon pricing is evolving rapidly. As Shown in Figure 3, 73 carbon taxes and ETSs are in place. Recent expansions include new ETSs in Austria and Washington State, a forthcoming national ETS in Indonesia, and additional carbon taxes in Mexico. Germany and the Netherlands have also enhanced their carbon pricing strategies, with Germany extending its ETS and the Netherlands setting price floors. These developments represent a worldwide trend towards stronger carbon pricing initiatives [87].

Figure 3. Map of carbon taxes and ETSs, edited from [87].

Renewable energy subsidies encompass a range of government-initiated financial incentives to bolster the production and consumption of energy from renewable sources. These incentives manifest in diverse forms, such as tax rebates, direct grants, and favorable loan terms, all designed to make renewable energy projects more economically viable and attractive for producers and consumers [88].

In MENA and GCC, comprehensive policy planning and public communication play a crucial role in the success of energy reform. It is important to balance economic incentives with environmental responsibilities. GCC countries must adopt market mechanisms that reduce resource waste and improve fiscal balances. However, being cautious about these policies’ adverse impacts on energy-intensive sectors and lower-income areas is essential. Energy subsidy reforms have been implemented, but their success varies, and their continuation often depends on oil prices and macroeconomic conditions. The government’s role in these reforms is critical. A hybrid model that still allows significant state influence in the economy is suggested. The diversification of economies, efficient energy–environmental policies, and transitioning towards renewable energy are necessary for GCC countries to effectively navigate the trade-offs between energy security and climate change mitigation [42].

Streimikiene and Sivickas conducted a detailed assessment of policy instruments to promote sustainable energy development [37]. They used a scoring system to evaluate the impact of these policies on various goals, including EE, renewable energy adoption, combined heat and power (CHP), and greenhouse gas emissions reduction. The research indicates that market-based mechanisms like tradeable permits and renewable energy certificates are potent tools for promoting energy conservation, enhancing renewable energy uptake, and cost-effectively curtailing greenhouse gas emissions. Yet, it also points out the current shortfall in thorough evaluations that measure the effectiveness of these tools. To bridge this gap, the researchers propose creating a comprehensive framework of indicators to monitor the enactment of EU energy directives and evaluate their influence on the advancement of sustainable energy [37].

The comparative study by Gugler et al. [53] examines the efficacy of policy tools in Germany’s and Britain’s energy sectors. It concludes that substantial carbon pricing is a more potent tool for emissions reduction than renewable energy subsidies. Britain’s higher carbon pricing has notably lessened emissions, shifting energy production away from coal towards lower-emission gas. At the same time, renewables like wind and solar have significantly reduced emissions in both nations. The study demonstrates that even moderate carbon pricing can swiftly lower emissions, mainly when operating lower-emission alternatives, such as gas power plants. This suggests that carbon emissions pricing is the most cost-effective method for mitigating emissions. Although the study is cautious in evaluating energy security, it implies that a robust carbon pricing mechanism can enhance energy security by reducing coal dependence and promoting the adoption of cleaner energy sources [53].

Furthermore, Rhodes and his team delve into the intricate relationship between economic efficiency and political acceptability [49]. They examine how these two factors interact subtly while exploring the energy policy landscape, which inherently involves trade-offs. Although carbon pricing is efficient economically, it often faces political resistance. On the other hand, flexible regulations like renewable portfolio and low-carbon fuel standards are more politically palatable and have more significant public support. However, these regulations may have hidden costs. By combining these regulations with carbon pricing, climate policies can be strengthened. Nonetheless, detailed studies are required to explore the public’s support for these flexible regulations [49].

To summarize, policy instruments such as carbon pricing and renewable energy certificates hold great promise but require a careful and comprehensive evaluation. Their effectiveness depends on several factors, including economic considerations, political dynamics, and public opinions. Crafting compelling and total energy and climate policies requires a balanced combination of these tools, tailored to specific contexts, and an understanding of their complex interactions.

11. Conclusions and Recommendations

This review analysis underscores the critical role of renewable energy in addressing climate change and energy security. For instance, the Retrofit Program has achieved savings of 7550 GWh/year in electricity and reduced carbon emissions by 4.5 million tons/year. Similarly, the 2050 Energy Plan targets a 40% reduction in electricity consumption by 2050. This study reveals how geopolitical dynamics significantly influence energy security. Although rich in hydrocarbons, the MENA and GCC regions are shifting towards renewable energy to ensure long-term energy security and to mitigate climate change impacts. Economic and social considerations are pivotal in balancing energy security and climate change mitigation. For example, the European Union’s shift to cleaner energy sources is influenced by factors like economic growth, policy measures, and evolving consumption patterns.

Policymakers should prioritize the integration of renewable energy sources with energy efficiency (EE) measures. This approach has significant potential to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Increased investment in research and development (R&D) for renewable energy technologies is essential. The United States’ public renewable energy research and development budgets have shown a positive impact on reducing CO₂ emissions. Different regions require customized strategies. For instance, the GCC’s focus on solar and nuclear energy contributes to a stable energy supply and helps in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Collaboration between the public and private sectors should be encouraged to foster innovation and investment in renewable energy infrastructure. Strengthening international cooperation in energy and environmental policies is necessary. Examples from countries like Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland can serve as models for successful policy implementation. Policy formulation should consider broader societal benefits, such as improved air quality and energy equity. This perspective ensures a holistic approach to sustainable energy development. Local factors, such as community needs and socio-economic conditions, are critical in shaping effective and sustainable energy policies. Tailoring strategies to these local factors is crucial for their success.

In conclusion, transitioning to a sustainable energy future requires a multifaceted approach, incorporating critical findings from global trends, addressing economic and social considerations, and emphasizing the local context in policy formulation. Integrating renewable energy, investing in R&D, fostering international cooperation, and considering broader societal impact are essential for achieving long-term sustainability in the energy sector.