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Article

A Study on the Effects of Applying Cargo Delivery Systems to Support Energy Transition in Agglomeration Areas—An Example of the Szczecin Agglomeration, Poland

by
Krystian Pietrzak
*,
Oliwia Pietrzak
* and
Andrzej Montwiłł
*
Faculty of Engineering and Economics of Transport, Maritime University of Szczecin, Wały Chrobrego 1-2, 70-500 Szczecin, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2023, 16(24), 7943; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16247943
Submission received: 3 November 2023 / Revised: 2 December 2023 / Accepted: 5 December 2023 / Published: 7 December 2023
(This article belongs to the Section G1: Smart Cities and Urban Management)
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Abstract

:
This article addresses certain issues related to the application of various cargo delivery systems that facilitate energy transition in cities and agglomerations. The main purpose of this article was to estimate the effects resulting from the application of a cargo delivery system that is an alternative to road transport within the area of the Szczecin agglomeration. The study applied the following research methods: literature review, mathematical computations, case study, and observation. The article estimated the volume of transport external costs’ reduction resulting from shifting cargo deliveries from road to rail transport in said agglomeration, applying the EU methodology to specify the amounts of external costs generated by individual modes and means of transport. The completed studies have demonstrated that the application of a rail-based cargo delivery system in the Szczecin agglomeration would enable a considerable reduction in the external costs generated by transport, thus supporting energy transition in said area. The findings also make it possible to conclude that the proposed solution may bring some other effects, such as a reduction in the number of diesel-powered heavy goods vehicles, reduced road congestion, and the increased safety of residents, as well as supporting electromobility and low-emission mobility policies in cities and agglomerations.

1. Introduction

Transport constitutes a key component of any city or agglomeration’s functioning and development [1]. It is indispensable for the functioning of business entities (deliveries of raw materials and components, internal flows, distribution of finished products, provision of services) and public institutions (public services, administrative functions, regulatory and inspection activities), as well as for the functioning of the city and agglomeration’s residents and users (meeting the transport needs of the public—moving about to meet their work, education, entertainment, healthcare, and other needs).
Unfortunately, in addition to its positive effects, transport generates a number of negative impacts on the environment. The environmental impacts include degradation of air quality, greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, increased threat of global climate change, degradation of water resources, noise, and habitat loss and fragmentation [2]; and the adverse impacts on society include respiratory, nervous, and circulatory system diseases, decreased safety on the roads and side-walks, and the extended time and cost of travel to the destination as a result of road congestion [3,4,5,6]. Due to the abovementioned aspects, transport in cities constitutes a particular challenge for urban logistics [7], as it requires searching for innovative solutions to make cities less polluted and easier to access, and to make the street traffic more fluent [8].
The European cities’ response to the abovementioned challenges is an irreversible shift to low-emission mobility. Pursuant to A European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility adopted by the EU, it is to be implemented via three major areas of actions: the achievement of higher efficiency of the transport system, utilisation of low-emission alternative energy for transport, and application of low-/zero emission vehicles [9]. The implementation is to cover both freight and passenger transport.
Analysing the measures taken by European cities and agglomerations, it is possible to notice that they in particular pertain to:
  • With regard to passenger transport—the development and promotion of public transport, application of alternative sources of energy in the public means of transport, construction of infrastructures integrating individual and public transport (e.g., Park and Ride), development and promotion of bicycle transport, and the promotion of travelling on foot;
  • With regard to cargo transport—the application of alternative sources of energy in vehicles used in parcel/courier deliveries and first/last mile deliveries, application of drones for transporting small, light parcels, and the application of public transport vehicles for cargo carriage (cargo hitching).
However, cities and agglomerations still have an issue with heavy weight cargoes, such as bulk, oversized, hazardous cargoes or containers. This problem is particularly visible in port, trading, tourist, and industrial cities and agglomerations, where such cargoes are usually very numerous, and they need to be delivered using a specific, dedicated transport infrastructure, e.g., access roads to seaports, airports, or industrial plants. This often excludes the possibility of using alternative roads. Moreover, carriage of this type of cargo also requires vehicles of a large carrying capacity and high-capacity transshipment facilities, in the case of which it is not always possible or easy to apply electric drive.
One of the areas that have to cope with this issue is the Szczecin agglomeration in Poland. In view of the above, and also taking into account the port, industrial, and tourist functions of said agglomeration, the main focus of this article was to estimate the effects resulting from the application of a cargo delivery system that is an alternative to road transport within the area of the Szczecin agglomeration. The proposed alternative delivery system should facilitate energy transition in the transport system (TS) of the examined area. To achieve said goal, the following research questions (RQs) were formulated:
  • RQ1. Is it possible to propose an alternative cargo delivery system within the Szczecin agglomeration?
  • RQ2. Does the application of rail transport as an alternative cargo delivery system in the agglomeration make it possible to reduce the external costs generated by transport?
  • RQ3. Does the application of rail transport as an alternative cargo delivery system in the agglomeration make it possible to achieve other effects related to the transport system or quality of life in the Szczecin agglomeration?
The further part of this article was arranged as follows: the second part constitutes a literature review focused on transport systems in cities and agglomerations and their impact on human life and health, and also the natural environment. It also discusses the solutions applied in passenger and freight TSs resulting from the goals of the low- and zero-emission transport policy. The third part of this article describes the individual stages of the study, and also the key input data used in the course of it. The fourth part presents the results of studying the effects of shifting cargoes from road transport to rail transport in the delivery system within the area of the Szczecin agglomeration in Poland. This part also includes the characteristics of the current delivery system functioning between the chemical company Grupa Azoty Zakłady Chemiczne Police S.A. (GAZCP) and its customers, and defines the research area and assumptions. Moreover, as is of key importance for the goal of this article, the effects of applying a rail-based delivery system in said agglomeration are estimated in this part. The fifth part of the article discusses the findings and also indicates effects other than external cost reduction (i.e., the reduction in the number of road vehicles, reduced road congestion, reduced degradation of the road infrastructure, or increased road and pedestrian safety). An important issue addressed in this part is defining the limitations of the solutions proposed by the authors. The last part contains conclusions that sum up the completed research study.

2. Literature Review

A transport system constitutes a vital element of any human environment. It provides mobility to residents, supports logistics processes, and moreover it is an indispensable factor of regional competitiveness and development. In this respect, intensively developing TSs gains particular importance in cities and agglomerations [10]. Their development is a direct outcome of demographic changes, including the progressing global urbanisation trend. According to United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [11], the urban population between 2018 and 2030 is to increase from 55% to over 60% of the global population. The forecasts show that by 2050, the value will reach as much as 66–68% [12,13,14].
When analysing the processes connected with city development, it is possible to notice that TSs play a key role in those processes. It is hard to imagine a contemporary city without appropriately developed systems of:
  • Linear and nodal transport infrastructure;
  • Passenger (private and public) transport;
  • Urban deliveries.
As it is these systems that are responsible for meeting the transport needs found in urbanised areas, it is also hard to imagine future cities without well-developed TSs; even more so as the forecast large rise in the population of urbanised areas may significantly increase the needs related to passenger and cargo flows.
However, when analysing any TSs it is also necessary to account for the accompanying phenomena that may influence the city residents’ health and life quality. Domagała et al. [15], Kijewska et al. [16], and Davidich et al. [17] pointed out that in addition to its positive aspects, a transport system may also be a source of hazards. This is also confirmed by Gao et al. [18] who indicated that the cities where the TS is mainly based on road transport experience various negative consequences. As noted by Lah [19] and Waquas et al. [20], said hazards result mainly from the fact that most vehicles are still powered with fossil fuels. This leads to considerable emissions of harmful substances, including: CO, CO2, SO2, NOX, PM10, PM2.5. There are numerous studies on transport-related emissions, including those authored by, e.g., Łapko et al. [21], Strulak-Wójcikiewicz et al. [22], Mikulski et al. [23], Połom et al. [24], Jereb et al. [25], and Urrutia-Mosquera et al. [26].
Zhang et al. [27], Matz et al. [28], and Boogaard et al. [29] pointed to the existing correlation between TS and life and health of people living in cities and agglomerations. The identified and studied diseases that derive directly from TS functioning include: cardiovascular diseases [30], asthma and COPD/chronic bronchitis [31,32,33], and acute changes in blood pressure [34,35].
Also, a significant environmental hazard ensuing from TS-related emissions is the global warming. This fact is emphasised in the studies authored by Giannakis et al. [36], Abraham et al. [37], and Zhang et al. [38]. According to the literature, the industry related to the transport sector is responsible for ca. a quarter of the global GHG emissions [39,40], and unless adequate measures are taken, in the future the transport sector will have an even greater share in GHG emissions. Very interesting insights in this respect are presented by Gelete et al. [41], Regmi et al. [42], and Koetse et al. [43]. They pointed out that the global warming caused by TSs, in addition to the negative impacts on the natural environment and human life and health, may also hinder and constrain the functioning of TSs themselves. The rising average air temperatures and the increasingly frequent extreme weather events (floods, hurricanes, torrential rain) can lead to accelerated wear and tear of vehicles and transportation infrastructures, as well as to increased costs of constructing new infrastructure elements. They may also periodically disrupt the possibility of providing transport services.
Aminzadegan et al. [44] pointed out that within the EU area, the TS was the second largest source of GHG emissions. According to Pomianowski [45], the TS constitutes the main source of air pollution in cities. The tangible aspects of the measures taken by the EU to mitigate the impact of TSs on the natural environment and human health and life are, e.g., the numerous changes within the scope of its transport policy [46]. The policy promotes all activities to support the development of low- and zero-emission forms of transport [47]. The aspect of particular importance in this respect is the development of electromobility [48], that is, the totality of issues related to the use of electric vehicles [49] applied in passenger and freight transport. The process of electromobility development in transport encompasses both the implementation of low- and zero-emission means of transport along with the necessary infrastructure and making specific urban spaces available exclusively for them—low-emission zones (LEZs) [50,51,52] and zero-emission zones (ZEZs) [53].
In the case of urban passenger transport, it is possible to identify several areas of activity in that regard. The first of them is the development and promotion of public transport (PT). It is aimed at increasing the PT share in the overall number of passenger trips in cities and agglomerations. There are numerous studies that have proved the effectiveness of those measures [54,55,56,57,58,59,60], where the authors indicate that PT may constitute the basis for the development and functioning of sustainable transport in cities and agglomerations. Cheng et al. [61] pointed to the considerable potential of PT in GHG emissions’ reduction, which results from the possibility of carrying a large number of passengers in a short time compared to individual transport; this was also confirmed by Ranceva et al. [62]. For the past several years, it is possible to notice that many cities have been developing their existing TSs. They place particular emphasis on enhancing the role of PT, or even prioritising it over other forms of movement. In this case, the particularly relevant solutions seem to be the ones that are independent of or moderately dependent on road congestion—trams, metro, light rail, and trolleybuses [63,64,65,66,67,68].
The second area of activity regarding passenger transport, which in some terms supplements the first one, is the development and application of alternative sources of energy for public means of transport. As Guzik et al. [69] were right to say, vehicles such as trams, metro, light rail, and trolleybuses may be excluded from this process. Due to the fact that they are electrically-powered, they have been meeting the electromobility criteria for many years. However, there is still an issue connected with the use of buses in the city public transportation system, as many of them are still internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Therefore, it is important to develop and implement alternative drives for this type of means of transport. The application of compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) buses, as well as hybrid vehicles at the initial stage, brought tangible benefits in terms of noise and GHG emissions’ reductions [70,71,72,73,74,75]. However, this was only a beginning of further activities in that respect. A kind of revolution was the introduction of electric buses to the market. The benefits of replacing ICEVs with electric buses were demonstrated in the studies authored by Konečný et al. [76] and Dalla Chiara et al. [77]. They stressed that the use of electric buses may bring significant savings in social costs.
The last area of activity regarding passenger transport is the development of environmentally-friendly vehicles that may be jointly referred to as non-motorised transport (NMT), along with the infrastructure that is indispensable for their functioning. The literature also refers to this kind of movement as “active transportation” or “human powered transportation” [78,79]. NMT encompasses bicycling and other kinds of vehicles: skates, skateboards, or push scooters, which may be categorised as small-wheeled transport [80]. As shown by Maciorowski et al. [81], NMT has been gaining popularity due to its low external costs, but also the significant benefits to the physical and mental health of its users. Risimiati et al. [82] on the basis of studies carried out in Johannesburg pointed to the possibility of integrating NMT with the infrastructure dedicated for PT and the ensuing benefits. NMT can be used in the initial and final stages of multimodal passenger travel, e.g., where the PT network is not adequately developed (city outskirts) or where there are restrictions for motorised traffic (city centres, old towns). The appropriate integration of NMT with PT makes it possible to build all-inclusive transportation chains in city TSs. In fact, the suggested integration relies on the construction of an appropriate nodal infrastructure (e.g., B&R); however, as Rietveld [83] emphasised, due to the small size of NMT vehicles it does not require considerable space as in the case of P&R facilities.
Grzelak et al. [84] argued that the relevant aspects of measures taken to reduce TS-related CO2 emissions were also those aiming at the promotion of the purchase and use of private electric vehicles (to replace the currently used ICEVs). These include systems of subsidies for the purchase of vehicles or the application of various kinds of preferences in using the city car parks, or access to special, designated traffic lanes. Gerboni et al. [85] are of a similar opinion and they stress that an increased share of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in the total number of individual vehicles may bring the desired effects. This, however, depends on the improved availability of public charging infrastructures, among other things.
In the case of urban freight transport (UFT), the implementation of solutions aimed at mitigating TSs’ impact on the natural environment and human health and life pertains predominantly to the first- and last-mile (FM and LM) operations. These are usually light, small-size cargoes—mainly parcels and courier consignments. Deliveries of this kind may be made using electric freight vehicles (EFVs) whose parameters correspond to the diesel-powered light commercial vehicles (LCVs) used thus far with a carrying capacity of up to 1.5 tonnes. The practical aspects of the possibilities of making deliveries with the use of EFVs, as well as the potential barriers to that process, were investigated by Dong et al. [86], Wątróbski et al. [87], Iwan et al. [88], Taefi et al. [89], and Malander et al. [90]. Importantly, the application of EFVs may bring tangible benefits in terms of mitigating the TS’s impacts on the natural environment and human life and health (reduced levels of emissions and noise); nonetheless, it does not eliminate all the nuisances caused by UFT. For example, it does not reduce congestion and does not improve pedestrians’ and cyclists’ safety [91].
Where the entry of ICEVs is constrained or prohibited [92], and also in the case of the numerous spatial limitations found especially in city centres, cargo deliveries supporting energy transition may also be made using the vehicles categorised as light electric freight vehicles (LEFVs). According to Balm et al. [93], LEFVs are electrically powered or electrically assisted vehicles that are smaller than a van and have a maximum loading capacity of 750 kg. Moolenburgh et al. [94] enumerated the following LEFVs: electric cargo bikes (loading capacity up to 350 kg), electric cargo mopeds (loading capacity up to 500 kg), and small electric distribution vehicles (loading capacity up to 750 kg). LEFVs take up much less space than EFVs; therefore, they are much easier to manoeuvre in city centres, and it is also easier to find an appropriate place for un/loading them. The utilisation of LEFVs may bring considerable effects in terms of processes related to energy transition in UFT. The study carried out by Diaz-Ramirez et al. in Bogota [95] has shown that the utilisation of LEFVs in urban distribution may reduce GHG emissions by more than 95%. Such a large reduction may be the result of synergy encompassing the abandonment of fossil fuels and replacing them with electric energy, at the same time reducing the demand for energy due to the reduced vehicle weight.
As noted by Iwan et al. [96], at the moment electric vehicles are still much more expensive than ICEVs; moreover, they have other limitations. The most significant ones include a limited travel range, long charging time (considerably longer than the time needed to refuel ICEVs), and the still-small number of public charging stations. This was also confirmed in the studies carried out by Skrúcaný et al. [97], Macioszek [49], and Anosike et al. [98]. The above indicated features effectively curb the applicability of electric vehicles in heavy cargo or long-distance transport; however, they do not negatively affect the provision of transport services in urban conditions. An interesting study in this respect was carried out by Settey et al. [99]. According to the study, it is in urban cycles characterised by frequent stopping and low velocity that EFVs are the most effective in terms of energy consumption. The advantage of EFVs over ICEVs can be particularly noticeable in limited speed zones (e.g., 30 km/h zones) or areas prone to congestion. The discussed results were also confirmed by Melo et al. [100] who pointed out that EV effectiveness depends on the cargo weight and size as well as the route length. In the authors’ opinion, the use of electric vehicles is particularly effective in urban logistics, which deals predominantly with small and light consignments that are carried over small distances. The EV travel range, which depends on the amount of electric power stored in the vehicle batteries, imposes additional constraints on distribution routes’ design [101], may require recharging while the vehicles are in operation [102], and also imposes the need to support the delivery systems by cargo consolidation centres.
The completed literature review has shown that the issue of energy transition in UFT is addressed primarily in relation to typical urban and agglomeration delivery systems, mainly in FM and LM deliveries. This derives directly from the constraints and properties of electric vehicles. It is in urban traffic that it is possible to charge the vehicles on a current basis or recover energy as a result of frequent braking, and the travel range of this type of vehicle does not constitute a significant barrier to making deliveries over short distances.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that many cities and agglomerations still have an issue with delivery systems for heavy weight cargoes, such as bulk, oversized, hazardous cargoes or containers. The problem affects mainly port, trading, tourist, and industrial cities and agglomerations, where deliveries are made often without a possibility of consolidation/deconsolidation and determine the use of the transport infrastructure connecting specific points or entities (e.g., trading ports, industrial enterprises). Deliveries of this kind are made over long distances with the use of high-carrying-capacity vehicles.
Unfortunately, the literature does not sufficiently address cargo delivery systems supporting energy transition with respect to the abovementioned cargo group. This is mainly due to the very limited possibility of applying electric road vehicles that are capable of making such deliveries. Even though it is possible to apply electric drive in heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), this requires very capacious batteries which would considerably reduce the vehicle’s loading capacity, in terms of both volume and weight. As indicated by Olovsson et al. [103], given the current battery efficiency, long-distance HGVs would need a battery with a capacity in the range of 600–800 kWh, which would necessitate a battery package weighing several tonnes.
In an attempt to solve this problem, some solutions are being tested in several countries, to make it possible to charge HGVs while they are in motion. The electric road system (ERS) program [104,105], also called dynamic power transfer (DPT), which is currently being tested, e.g., in Sweden, Norway, and Germany, consists of constructing traction power networks above selected roads to supply road vehicles in motion, on a similar principle as in the case of trains or trams. Schwerdfeger et al. [106] noted that the implementation of this type of solution to a larger extent may be costly and time-consuming. Moreover, according to Börjesson et al. [107], the potential benefits of the ERS system may be limited in the long term as a result of the further development of batteries and hydrogen fuel cells. A substantial limitation of this solution may also be the fact that a traction power network located above the road may restrict or even block the transport of oversized cargoes.
Therefore, a research study was carried out to examine the effects of utilising cargo delivery systems that are an alternative to the road systems and are capable of supporting energy transition in agglomeration areas, thus addressing the identified literature gap.

3. Methodology

This article examines the effects of applying an alternative cargo delivery system (based on rail transport) in the Szczecin agglomeration in Poland, in relation to the system currently used (based on road transport). The research process was completed in 4 stages:
Stage 1, the literature review, focused on the negative impacts generated by transport in urban and metropolitan areas, as well as the various solutions used in order to reduce or eliminate them (with regard to both cargo and passenger transport). This stage of the study also involved an analysis of legal acts regulating the electromobility policy. As a result of completing this stage, the literature gap, the research objective, and the research questions were formulated.
Stage 2 included characterising the Szczecin agglomeration, with a particular focus on the road and rail transport infrastructures, and the current delivery system of cargoes from GAZCP transported across the Szczecin agglomeration (Poland).
The outcome of this stage was defining the base delivery system (DSV0) being the basis for the comparative study and the alternative, proposed delivery system for cargoes from GAZCP (DSV1).
Stage 3 included the identification of the research assumptions, and also the calculation of the external costs in the base variant (DSV0) and the proposed variant (DSV1). The outcome of this stage was the calculation of the external costs’ reduction level resulting from applying the alternative cargo delivery system, assuming the current volume of deliveries from GAZCP.
Stage 4 encompassed the calculation of the external costs’ reduction level resulting from applying the alternative cargo delivery system, taking into account the increased transport needs of GAZCP upon the completion of the production plant extension that is currently underway. This stage also made it possible to indicate other effects that are possible to be achieved as a result of shifting cargoes from road to rail transport, to support energy transition in the selected system of deliveries. As a result of the conducted studies and analyses, conclusions were drawn and perspectives for further studies were identified.
The research process is outlined in Figure 1.
To carry out the research process, it was necessary to source and use specific input data, including in particular:
  • Official statistical data regarding the Szczecin agglomeration, including the cities of Szczecin and Police [108];
  • Official quantitative and qualitative data regarding the road transport infrastructure in the Szczecin agglomeration [109];
  • Official quantitative and qualitative data regarding the rail transport infrastructure in the Szczecin agglomeration [110];
  • Average costs per category for the individual means of road and rail transport [111];
  • Provisions of the Act of 11 January 2018 on Electromobility and Alternative Fuels (AEAF) adopted by the Polish Parliament [112];
  • Provisions of the EU policies on electromobility and low-emission mobility [8,9].

4. Studying the Effects of Shifting Cargoes from Road to Rail Transport in the Delivery System in the Szczecin Agglomeration in Poland

In terms of geographical area, the research carried out for the purposes of this article pertains to the Szczecin agglomeration. It is located in the north-west part of Poland and constitutes an urban system consisting of one large urban centre—the city of Szczecin—and several towns—Stargard, Police, Goleniów, and Gryfino. Due to the European transport routes running through the agglomeration and the international seaport located within its area, it is an important transport hub.

4.1. Characteristics of the Existing Delivery System of Cargoes from Grupa Azoty Zakłady Chemiczne Police S.A.

The research study covered the cargo delivery system functioning between the chemical company—GAZCP—located within the Szczecin agglomeration, and its domestic (Poland) and foreign (Europe) customers. GAZCP is a business entity that has been operating in the Szczecin agglomeration for over 50 years and which constitutes an important element of the regional economy. The company has been continuously developing and expanding its product assortment. The latest investment completed by GAZCP is Polimery Police—the largest production plant of propylene and polypropylene in Central and Eastern Europe. The production was commenced in June 2023; however, the production capacity of the new plant will be gradually ramped up as per the investment schedule [113]. This will affect the company’s transport needs and delivery system organisation.
As shown by Krzyżewska [114], a delivery process consists of many stages during which numerous disruptions and problems may occur. The currently used delivery system for GAZCP products is based on HGVs. A significant issue in this case is the lack of ring roads of the nearby cities; thus, GAZPC does not have direct access to the national and European networks of expressways and motorways. Therefore, to transport goods between GAZCP and its customers, it is necessary each time for the HGVs to drive through the centres of two cities of the Szczecin agglomeration: the city of Police (population—30.4 thousand, area—37 km2) and the city of Szczecin (population—394.5 thousand, area—301 km2) [108]. The HGVs may enter the national and European road network no earlier than when they reach the Szczecin Kijewo (SK) interchange located at the intersection of roads No. A6, S3, DK10/S10. The described delivery system is outlined in Figure 2.
As already mentioned, due to the lack of city ring roads, HGVs carrying GAZCP products have to travel through the centres of two cities in the Szczecin agglomeration: Police and Szczecin. This way of delivery system organisation brings specific negative effects for the cities’ functioning and development. HGVs driving through the city centres cause pollution, excessive noise, road congestion, reduced safety for residents, and degradation of the transport infrastructure (the negative effects of TS on urban areas are described in more detail in Part 2 of this manuscript).
The HGV transit disturbs the measures currently taken by both cities, connected with limiting heavy vehicle traffic within their areas. Additionally, the HGV traffic hinders planning any such activities in the future, including the establishment of urban low- and zero-emission zones. This is particularly important for the capital city of the agglomeration—the city of Szczecin—which, pursuant to the requirements of AEAF [112], is required to implement specific measures in order to transform the city’s TS to a low- and zero-emission one. It should also be noted that in connection with the current expansion of the GAZCP plant, the number of vehicles leaving the premises will double over the next few years (according to the data provided by the company, currently GAZCP is handled by ca. 200 HGVs per day). Thus, the negative impacts of transport on the functioning of these two cities may be enhanced in the future, unless appropriate actions are taken with the aim of changing the current delivery system.

4.2. Defining the Research Area and Research Assumptions

With a view to the problems experienced by the cities of Police and Szczecin in connection with the currently functioning cargo delivery road system from GAZCP (4.1), it was assumed that the research should cover only the road section between GAZCP and the SK interchange (marked with the solid line in Figure 3), disregarding any further routes leading to the individual customers (marked with the dotted line in Figure 3). The examined road section, which runs through the Szczecin agglomeration, is shared by all the HGVs carrying goods from GAZCP, regardless of their final destinations.
As already mentioned in the introduction to this article, the research goal was to estimate the effects resulting from the application of cargo delivery systems that are an alternative to road transport within the area of the Szczecin agglomeration. The alternative cargo delivery system for the examined road section (GAZCP–SK) was assumed to be rail-based. This choice was predicated on the following considerations:
  • Due to its features such as transport safety, significant commercial speed, low adverse impacts on the environment, and no vulnerability to road congestion [65], rail transport is the transport mode preferred by the EU [115];
  • GAZCP is equipped with its own railway siding, which enables loading their cargoes;
  • Within the area of the Szczecin agglomeration, many investment projects connected with upgrading the railway network are being carried out, which will contribute to improving the rail TS capacity in the studied areas and will increase safety.
In order to carry out a comparative study, it was necessary to define a rail route that was analogous to the road delivery system. To this end, GAZCP was taken as the starting point, and the Szczecin Dunikowo (SD) railway siding was adopted as the endpoint. The railway siding is located within the Dunikowo Business Park, near the intersection of Railway Line No. 351 and Railway Line No. 401 [110], and within a small road distance (ca. 4 km) from the SK road interchange. Importantly, the abovementioned railway siding (SD) is part of a large intermodal terminal planned to be commissioned in the near future, which is intended for handling cargo flows coming to/from the Szczecin agglomeration.
Similar to the case of deliveries by road, the research focused exclusively on the route section between GAZCP and the SD railway siding, disregarding any further possible stages of delivery systems (cargo delivery may be continued by rail or the cargo may be transshipped onto HGVs).
Thus, two variants of cargo delivery system in the Szczecin agglomeration area (from GAZCP) were adopted for the purposes of the comparative study:
  • DSV0: the base delivery system (the currently used one)—cargoes are transported on semi-trailers by means of HGVs;
  • DSV1: the alternative delivery system (the proposed one)—cargoes are transported on semi-trailers by means of intermodal trains.
The graphic presentation of the variants DSV0 and DSV1 can be seen in Figure 4. The blue line represents the route to be covered by HGVs in the variant DSV0, the red line marks the route to be covered by intermodal trains in the variant DSV1.
The following assumptions were adopted in connection with the research study:
  • The maximum carrying capacity of 1 semi-trailer is 24 tonnes;
  • Each shipper strives to load the semi-trailer/means of transport to the maximum;
  • 1 HGV carries 1 semi-trailer at a time, i.e., 24 tonnes of cargo;
  • 1 intermodal train carries 25 semi-trailers at a time, i.e., 600 tonnes of cargo (the assumption was adopted based on the data obtained from carriers operating these kinds of transport in Poland);
  • To ensure data comparability, the concept of the delivery cycle (DC) was introduced in the analysis. It denotes an operating cycle of the analysed means of transport in both variants (DSV0, DSV1) necessary to move a specific amount of cargo;
  • 1 DC is a cycle during which 600 tonnes of cargo is transported;
  • The road distance between GAZCP and SK is 36 km (return trip 72 km) [116];
  • The rail distance between GAZCP and SD is 39 km (return trip 78 km) [117];
  • the railway route between GAZCP and SD is fully provided with electric traction; therefore, the delivery system may be operated with electric trains, which may foster energy transition in the examined area.

4.3. Estimating the Effects Ensuing from Application of a Rail-Based Delivery System in the Szczecin Agglomeration

The research assumptions adopted in the previous section (Section 4.2) made it possible to compute the external costs (EC) for the two variants: DSV0 and DSV1.
  • Estimation of External Costs in Variant DSV0 (road vehicles)
In order to calculate the external costs generated by means of transport in the variant DSV0, the following data were adopted:
  • Deliveries from GAZCP to SK (and back) are made by way of diesel-powered HGVs;
  • Carrying capacity of 1 HGV = 24 tonnes;
  • Completion of 1 DC requires the use of 25 HGVs;
  • Average external cost per 1 HGV = 0.042 EUR/tkm [111].
Pursuant to the EU methodology concerning external costs generated by the means of road transport [111], the following formula was adopted for the computations:
ECDSV0 = WDSV0 × DDSV0 × NDSV0 × UECDSV0
where:
  • ECDSV0—external costs generated by HGVs per 1 DC (EUR);
  • WDSV0—weight of cargo carried by 1 HGV (tonnes);
  • DDSV0—road distance on the GAZCP–SK–GAZCP route (km);
  • NDSV0—quantity of HGVs required to complete 1 DC (pcs);
  • UECDSV0—external unit costs generated by 1 HGV at a distance of 1 km (EUR).
Using the adopted formula, the external costs generated by HGVs per 1 DC were calculated for the variant DSV0.
ECDSVO = WDSV0 × DDSV0 × NDSV0 × UECDSV0
ECDSVO = 24 (tonnes) × 72 (km) × 25 (vehicles) × 0.042 (EUR)
ECDSVO = 1814.40 EUR
  • Estimation of External Costs in Variant DSV1 (Rail Vehicles)
In order to calculate the external costs generated by means of rail transport in the variant DSV1, the following data were adopted:
  • Deliveries from GAZCP to SD (and back) are made by means of intermodal electric trains;
  • Carrying capacity of 1 train = 25 semi-trailers;
  • Completion of 1 DC requires the use of 1 intermodal electric train;
  • Average external cost for electric freight trains = 0.0112 EUR/tkm [111].
Pursuant to the UE methodology concerning the external costs generated by means of rail transport [111], the following formula was adopted for the computations:
ECDSV1 = WDSV1 × DDSV1 × UECDSV1
where:
  • ECDSV1—external costs generated by an intermodal electric train per 1 DC (EUR);
  • WDSV1—weight of cargo carried by 1 intermodal electric train (tonnes);
  • DDSV1—rail distance on the GAZCP–SD–GAZCP route (km);
  • UECDSV1—external unit costs generated by 1 electric freight train in transporting 1 tonne at a distance of 1 km (EUR/tkm).
Using the adopted formula, external costs generated by an intermodal electric train per 1 DC were calculated for variant DSV1.
ECDSV1 = WDSV1 × DDSV1 × UECDSV1
ECDSV1 = 600 (tonnes) × 78 (km) × 0.0112 (EUR)
ECDSV1 = 524.16 EUR
  • Estimation of the reduction in the external costs
To calculate the reduction in the external costs, resulting from shifting cargo deliveries from road transport (DSV0) to rail transport (DSV1) in the Szczecin agglomeration (on the GAZCP–SK/SD–GAZCP route), the following formula was applied:
REC = ECDSV0 − ECDSV1
Taking into account the results of the calculation of external costs for the variants DSV0 (road vehicles) and DSV1 (rail vehicles), the amount of reduction in external costs (REC) for 1 DC was computed:
REC = 1814.40 EUR–524.16 EUR = 1290.24 EUR
Summing up, shifting the cargoes from road transport to rail transport in the Szczecin agglomeration (on the GAZCP–SK/SD–GAZCP route) may bring tangible benefits including a reduction in the external costs of transport. Shifting the cargoes carried by 25 HGVs through the Szczecin agglomeration to complete 1 DC from GAZCP to rail transport makes it possible to obtain external costs reductions (REC) in the following amounts:
  • per day: EUR 1290.24;
  • per month: EUR 38,707.2;
  • per quarter: EUR 116,121.6;
  • per year: EUR 464,486.40.
Considering the current number of vehicles handling GAZCP daily (200 HGVs, i.e., 8 DCs per day), shifting the cargoes from that number of HGVs to rail transport makes it possible to achieve external costs reductions (REC) in the following amounts:
  • per day: EUR 10,321.92;
  • per month: EUR 309,657.60;
  • per quarter: EUR 928,972.80;
  • per year: EUR 3,715,891.20.
It is worth noting that application of the proposed alternative delivery system (DSV1) from GAZCP in the Szczecin agglomeration does not require any costly investments in the transport infrastructure. Both GAZCP and SD are equipped with properly prepared railway sidings that are connected with the existing network of national railway lines. Moreover, in connection with the investment project currently underway—i.e., Szczecin Metropolitan Railway (SMR)—numerous alterations are being carried out on individual railway lines in the Szczecin agglomeration, and the railway infrastructure is being upgraded [10]. The planned effects of the works carried out within the railway network include: improving the rail traffic safety, increasing the train permissible speed, and—what is particularly important from the point of view of DSV1—a substantial increase in the rail network capacity.

5. Discussion

The research study described in this article resulted from the literature gap identified and defined in Part 2, as well as the identified negative effects of the currently applied delivery system of GAZCP in the Szczecin agglomeration. As shown in Part 4 of this article, the application of the alternative delivery system from GAZCP will contribute to a reduction in the external costs of transport as a result of shifting the cargoes from road to rail transport in the Szczecin agglomeration. However, when analysing the benefits ensuing from the application of the proposed delivery system, it is necessary to take into account the commenced expansion of said chemical plant. When the expansion is completed, the number of HGVs used in the delivery system and driving across the Szczecin agglomeration will increase. According to the data provided by the company, the number of HGVs is expected to rise to 400 HGVs per day (which corresponds to 16 DCs). When these data are taken into account, the REC resulting from shifting that amount of cargo (9600 tonnes) to rail transport will be as follows:
  • per day: EUR 20,643.84;
  • per month: EUR 619,315.20;
  • per quarter: EUR 1,857,945.60;
  • per year: EUR 7,431,782.40.
It is also worth noting that, in addition to the abovementioned reduction in external costs, the proposed alternative delivery system from GAZCP may also contribute to achieving other effects related to the transport system or quality of life in the Szczecin agglomeration. This provides a positive answer to RQ3 posed in the Introduction. Taking into account the assumed carrying capacity of the train, which corresponds to that of 25 HGVs, the application of trains may lead to a considerable reduction in the number of vehicles and the amount of tonne-kilometres completed by road transport in the agglomeration. Table 1 presents the required number of vehicles (HGVs and intermodal trains) and the total distance they have to cover to complete a specific number of DCs in the particular time intervals (day, month, quarter, and year).
According to the data in Table 1, the completion of 1 DC by rail transport may eliminate from the Szczecin agglomeration roads 25 single deliveries made by HGVs covering the total distance of 1800 km (25 deliveries × 72 km). Monthly, the utilisation of the alternative delivery system for 1 DC per day will make it possible to eliminate 750 deliveries covering the total distance of 54,000 km; quarterly, 2250 deliveries of the total distance of 162,000 km; and yearly, 9000 deliveries of the total distance of 648,000 km.
Given the current HGV traffic from GAZCP, which amounts to 8 DCs per day, shifting the cargoes to rail transport may eliminate from the Szczecin agglomeration roads 200 deliveries covering the total distance of 14,400 km; monthly, 6000 deliveries of the total distance of 432,000; quarterly, 18,000 deliveries of the total distance of 1,296,000 km; and yearly, 72,000 deliveries of the total distance of 5,184,000 km.
In turn, given the expected HGV traffic following the completion of the GAZCP plant expansion, the utilisation of the proposed delivery system will make it possible to eliminate from the Szczecin agglomeration roads 16 DCs per day—400 deliveries of the total distance of 28,800 km; monthly, 12,000 deliveries of the total distance of 864,000; quarterly, 36,000 deliveries of the total distance of 2,592,000 km; and yearly, 144,000 deliveries of the total distance of 10,368,000 km.
Such a considerable reduction in the number of deliveries made by HGVs (DSV0) within the agglomeration may also bring other significant effects (benefits) in the form of:
  • Decreased road congestion as a result of a considerable reduction in the number of HGVs;
  • Decreased degradation of the road infrastructure as a result of a considerable reduction in the number of HGVs using it;
  • Increased road safety as a result of making the traffic more fluent;
  • Increased safety of NMT users and pedestrians—the route leading from GAZCP runs through urbanised areas, including the centres of the cities: Police and Szczecin;
  • Increased tourist attractiveness of the Szczecin city centre—the HGV traffic is currently concentrated in the representative part of the city, along Wały Chrobrego, the city’s main tourist attraction;
  • Supporting energy transition by making it possible to establish low- and zero-emission zones in the centre of Szczecin (as recommended by the AEAF);
  • Supporting energy transition by shifting cargo deliveries from road to rail transport in said agglomeration.
It should also be noted that changing the delivery system by GAZCP in the Szczecin agglomeration area may positively affect the company’s image and its perception by the residents in the region. Changing the delivery system to the proposed one, being an action to mitigate the negative environmental impacts, could be one of the tools of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) policy that the company pursues.
When discussing the completed research study, it is also necessary to identify the limitations of the solution proposed in this article. The implementation of the proposed solution (DSV1) is connected with the need to incur specific costs. However, it should be noted that the infrastructure costs, which are of key importance for each transport-related investment, to a large extent have already been incurred or will be incurred as part of other investment projects carried out in the agglomeration. Additionally, both GAZCP and SD are equipped with railway sidings, and their technical condition makes it possible to make deliveries by intermodal trains. The issue of costs related to investment projects being part of DSV1 will be an object of a separate study.
Moreover, it should be noted that the GAZCP company has been operating for over 50 years and it has developed a specific delivery system model. To change the model, it would be necessary to engage the company and its employees in the implementation of a new system. This would require them to accept specific developments and to change their long-term habits.
What is also important is that the individual cities in the agglomeration apparently do not seem to take the initiative to promote and implement cargo delivery systems that are alternative to those road-based. Admittedly, measures are taken to support energy transition in the public passenger transport (e.g., the development of electric public bus transportation [10]); however, in the case of freight transport such actions are taken exclusively on the initiative of individual companies (e.g., courier deliveries made with electric vehicles, shopping deliveries with electric bikes). As noted by Kiba-Janiak, urban freight transport plays an important role in solving problems related to the sustainable development of transport systems, therefore it should be included into a city strategic management [118]. The specific nature of the Szczecin agglomeration as well as its capital city—the city of Szczecin—requires a complex approach to the issues of sustainability and energy transition in TSs. It might be advisable for the local authorities to consider the possibility of establishing cooperation with the academic community to work out a concept for TS development in the agglomeration, taking into account the needs and goals ensuing from low- and zero-emission mobility. Such a concept might be a prelude to further activities and initiatives implemented in the discussed area.

6. Conclusions

TS is an indispensable element in designing and developing urban and agglomeration areas. Its efficient functioning guarantees economic development and the region’s competitiveness; also, it meets the residents’ transport needs. Unfortunately, TS may also be a source of many hazards that have an adverse effect on human health and life and may be destructive for the surrounding flora and fauna.
With the increasing urbanisation and growing demand for transportation services, the search for new solutions in TS functioning is becoming a significant challenge faced by contemporary cities and agglomerations. The solutions are aimed to contribute to TS development while guaranteeing that it will not have an adverse effect on the residents’ health and life quality.
The purpose of this article was to estimate the effects resulting from the application of a cargo delivery system that is an alternative to road transport within the area of the Szczecin agglomeration. The proposed alternative delivery system should support energy transition in the transport system (TS). The object of the research was the cargo delivery system between the chemical company GAZCP and its customers, whereas the scope of impact of this delivery system was limited to the Szczecin agglomeration being the area under research.
For the purposes of the comparative study, two variants of cargo delivery system in the Szczecin agglomeration area were adopted:
  • DSV0: the currently used delivery system—cargoes are transported on semi-trailers by means of diesel-powered HGVs;
  • DSV1: the proposed delivery system—cargoes are transported on semi-trailers by means of intermodal trains.
The research study was performed pursuant to the EU methodology concerning the external costs generated by means of road transport and railway transport. The comparison of the external costs generated during deliveries made respectively in variant DSV0 and variant DSV1 made it possible to estimate the reduction in the external costs (REC).
The research has shown that the application of the variant DSV1 may facilitate and accelerate the energy transition in the TS of the Szczecin agglomeration, and also may bring tangible benefits in the form of a reduction in external costs (REC). For the current delivery volume (8 DCS), switching from DSV0 to DSV1 in the investigated area could reduce external costs by almost EUR 4 million per year. For the forecast delivery volume of 16 DCS in the future, the annual reduction in external costs could reach as much as EUR 7.5 million. Moreover, the implementation of the variant DSV1 may also contribute to achieving other positive effects related to the transport system or quality of life in the Szczecin agglomeration, such as decreasing road congestion, reducing the degradation of the transport infrastructure, increasing the agglomeration residents’ safety, or improving the tourist attractiveness of the studied area.
The completed research has both theoretical and practical aspects. In theoretical terms, the research addresses the identified literature gap regarding the limited scope of research in the area of cargo delivery systems supporting energy transition in relation to heavy and bulk cargoes and containers. The practical aspect of the research is the possibility of implementing the proposed cargo delivery system in the Szczecin agglomeration, using the transport infrastructure available in the region. It should be stressed that there is a need for further research regarding the proposed solution, in particular regarding the costs of its implementation and operation.
Moreover, it makes it possible to adapt the proposed solution in other areas, particularly in other port, trading, tourist, and industrial cities and agglomerations. In the authors’ opinion, it is reasonable to continue research on the possibilities of also applying the proposed solution in relation to other cargo groups and to agglomerations with different characteristics.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.P., O.P. and A.M.; data curation, K.P., O.P. and A.M.; formal analysis, K.P., O.P. and A.M.; investigation, K.P., O.P. and A.M.; methodology, K.P., O.P. and A.M.; visualization, K.P.; writing—original draft, K.P., O.P. and A.M.; writing—review and editing, O.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research presented in this article was carried out in the Maritime University of Szczecin under Grant 1/S/KGMiST/2023.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
AEAFAct on Electromobility and Alternative Fuels
BEVBattery Electric Vehicle
CNGCompressed Natural Gas
DCDelivery Cycle
EFVElectric Freight Vehicle
EUEuropean Union
FMFirst Mile
GAZCPGrupa Azoty Zakłady Chemiczne Police S.A.
GHGGreenhouse Gases
HGVHeavy Goods Vehicle
ICEVInternal Combustion Engine Vehicle
LCVLight Commercial Vehicle
LEFVLight Electric Freight Vehicle
LEZLow Emission Zone
LMLast Mile
LNGLiquefied Natural Gas
NMTNonmotorized Transport
PHEVPlug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
RECReduction External Costs
SDSzczecin Dunikowo
SKSzczecin Kijewo
TSTransport System
UFTUrban Freight Transport
ZEZZero Emission Zone

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Energies 16 07943 g001
Figure 1. The research process flow diagram.
Figure 1. The research process flow diagram.
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Figure 2. Road system used by HGVs to deliver cargoes from GAZCP to customers.
Figure 2. Road system used by HGVs to deliver cargoes from GAZCP to customers.
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Figure 3. Road system used by HGVs between GAZCP and the SK interchange—the area under research.
Figure 3. Road system used by HGVs between GAZCP and the SK interchange—the area under research.
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Figure 4. Graphical presentation of the variant DSV0 (the blue line) and the variant DSV1 (the red line).
Figure 4. Graphical presentation of the variant DSV0 (the blue line) and the variant DSV1 (the red line).
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Table 1. Comparing the DSV0 and DSV1 variants in terms of the number of vehicles and distances covered.
Table 1. Comparing the DSV0 and DSV1 variants in terms of the number of vehicles and distances covered.
DSV0DSV1
Number of VehiclesNumber of KilometresNumber of VehiclesNumber of Kilometres
day1 DC251800178
8 DCs20014,4008624
16 DCs40028,800161248
month1 DC75054,000302340
8 DCs6000432,00024018,720
16 DCs12,000864,00048037,440
quarter1 DC2250162,000907020
8 DCs18,0001,296,00072056,160
16 DCs36,0002,592,0001440112,320
year1 DC9000648,00036028,080
8 DCs72,0005,184,0002880224,640
16 DCs144,00010,368,0005760449,280
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Pietrzak, K.; Pietrzak, O.; Montwiłł, A. A Study on the Effects of Applying Cargo Delivery Systems to Support Energy Transition in Agglomeration Areas—An Example of the Szczecin Agglomeration, Poland. Energies 2023, 16, 7943. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16247943

AMA Style

Pietrzak K, Pietrzak O, Montwiłł A. A Study on the Effects of Applying Cargo Delivery Systems to Support Energy Transition in Agglomeration Areas—An Example of the Szczecin Agglomeration, Poland. Energies. 2023; 16(24):7943. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16247943

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pietrzak, Krystian, Oliwia Pietrzak, and Andrzej Montwiłł. 2023. "A Study on the Effects of Applying Cargo Delivery Systems to Support Energy Transition in Agglomeration Areas—An Example of the Szczecin Agglomeration, Poland" Energies 16, no. 24: 7943. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16247943

APA Style

Pietrzak, K., Pietrzak, O., & Montwiłł, A. (2023). A Study on the Effects of Applying Cargo Delivery Systems to Support Energy Transition in Agglomeration Areas—An Example of the Szczecin Agglomeration, Poland. Energies, 16(24), 7943. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16247943

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