Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) as a Solution for Renewable Energy Gaps: Spatial Analysis for Polish Strategy

Abstract

The integration of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) into energy systems requires a meticulous assessment of various factors, spanning renewable energy potential, legal frameworks, technical considerations, community engagement, and consumer preferences. This article synthesizes a multifaceted discussion on the subject, focusing on the need for comprehensive analyses before deciding to implement SMRs. Drawing insights from geographic information systems (GIS) and lessons from renewable energy development in Poland, this paper underscores the significance of aligning energy strategies with local needs, emphasizing stakeholder participation. This study examines the factors influencing location attractiveness for various energy technologies, including small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs), wind, solar, and hydroelectric power plants, within Poland. Employing 17 indicators sourced from Statistics Poland and URE, coupled with the application of the k-means algorithm, we outline four distinct clusters that delineate the zones of location attractiveness for SMRs and other renewable energy sources. While large and medium-sized cities exhibit optimal location attractiveness, coastal counties in northern Poland emerge as more suitable for renewable energy sources than for SMRs. The study outlines four distinct energy development strategies based on typologies of regions, each tailored to maximize the utility of available resources and minimize environmental impact. The strategies encompass renewable energy utilization, energy efficiency enhancement, energy diversification, and adaptation through innovation. Emphasizing the interplay between renewable energy potential, energy demand, and local conditions, the research suggests the strategic deployment of SMRs as part of an energy mix in areas where renewable energy resources are limited. By leveraging SMRs’ continuous energy production, these reactors can complement intermittent renewables, bolstering energy security.

1. Introduction

The current energy policy of the European Union (EU) focuses on the development of renewable energy sources and reducing dependence on non-renewable resources [1]. The EU aims to build a resource-efficient and low-carbon economy, with a particular emphasis on environmental protection [2]. This policy is driven by the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change [3]. Renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, play a crucial role in the EU’s energy policy [4]. Biomass energy is also considered strategically useful [5], especially in circumstances where other renewable energy sources may be less viable [4].

In addition to promoting renewable energy sources, the EU is also exploring the potential of nuclear energy. Therefore, it is important to distinguish certain nuclear reactor technologies in order to adapt this kind of energy within the common European policy.

Nuclear reactors are intricate systems, coming in various types, each one characterized by its specific design and operational traits. Among the most frequently encountered types of nuclear reactors are Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs), Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs), High-Temperature Reactors (HTRs), and Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). Each type boasts its unique strengths and weaknesses, which play a critical role in evaluating their suitability for various applications and in shaping energy security and energy policy planning. PWRs are quite widely used and have a significant history of applications in the nuclear industry. They operate by utilizing pressurized water both as a coolant and a moderator. PWRs offer high thermal efficiency, which means they can convert a large portion of the heat generated by the nuclear reaction into electrical energy. This makes them an attractive option for generating electricity in large quantities. PWRs also benefit from well-established technology and robust regulatory frameworks [6]. BWRs, on the other hand, have a simpler design compared to PWRs. They use boiling water as both the coolant and the moderator, eliminating the need for a separate steam generator. This simplicity allows for higher thermal efficiencies to be achieved. BWRs also have a smaller footprint and can be more cost-effective to build and operate. However, their simpler design may result in lower safety margins compared to PWRs [7]. HTRs operate at higher temperatures compared to PWRs and BWRs. They use helium gas as the coolant, which allows for higher thermal efficiencies and the potential for other applications such as hydrogen production. HTRs also offer inherent safety features, such as passive cooling and the ability to withstand higher temperatures without the risk of fuel melting. However, HTRs have limited operational experience and require specialized fuel in the form of TRISO particles, which can pose challenges in terms of fuel fabrication and availability [8].

SMRs are a newer concept in nuclear reactor design. They are smaller in size compared to traditional reactors and can be built in a modular fashion. This offers advantages in terms of flexibility and scalability, as multiple SMRs can be deployed to meet varying power demands. SMRs also have the potential to be used in remote locations or as a backup power source. However, SMRs may face challenges in terms of economics of scale, as the smaller size may result in higher costs per unit of electricity generated [7]. Additionally, the regulatory frameworks for SMRs are still being developed and may pose challenges for their widespread deployment. SMRs are compact and can be transported and installed in close proximity to the user, such as residential areas or large complexes [9]. However, it is important to note that the focus of the EU’s energy policy is primarily on renewable energy sources, and the use of SMRs is still being explored as a potential option. Overall, the current energy policy of the European Union prioritizes the development of renewable energy sources to reduce environmental degradation and combat climate change [1,3,10]. The EU aims to increase the share of renewable energy in its energy mix and reduce dependence on non-renewable resources [1]. While renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, are the main focus of the EU’s energy policy, the potential use of small modular reactors is also being considered [9].

In the face of global challenges related to climate and sustainable development, the European Union (EU) is focusing on transitioning to clean, emission-free sources of energy [11]. The EU’s energy policy aims to ensure a secure, sustainable, and competitive energy sector that minimizes greenhouse gas emissions and reduces dependence on traditional fossil fuels [12].

However, the current energy crisis, particularly severe in some regions of Europe, highlights the need for diversification and optimization of the energy system. Rising energy prices, limited resource availability, and supply instability indicate the urgent need to explore alternative sources and methods of energy generation [13].

In this context, the assessment of location attractiveness for new energy sources is extremely important. In this article, we will focus on identifying the factors that influence the attractiveness of locations for various energy technologies, such as small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs), wind power plants, solar power plants, and hydroelectric power plants.

The development of and increasing demand for clean and sustainable energy require the identification of suitable locations for new energy sources. In the case of small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs), determining the attractiveness of a location is crucial for effective energy generation planning. The selection of suitable sites for SMR installations is determined by various factors, such as geographical, economic, social, and logistical aspects.

The article focuses on the analysis of the attractiveness of locations for SMRs (Small Modular Reactors). The main research objective is to identify factors influencing the attractiveness of sites for these small nuclear reactors. For this reason, the following questions and hypotheses arise: What factors influence the attractiveness of locations for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)? What relationships exist between deficits in renewable energy potential and the attractiveness of locations for Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs)? Can Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) serve as a solution to the deficit of renewable energy in certain regions, providing a stable and reliable source of energy?

Hypothese 1.

In regions where deficits in renewable energy potential and problems with delivering a stable, greenhouse gas-free energy source exist, a higher attractiveness of locations for Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) can be expected. Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) can serve as a complementary role to renewable energy, enabling the fulfillment of energy demand in regions with limited access to alternative renewable energy sources.

Examining these hypotheses will allow for a better understanding of the factors influencing the attractiveness of locations for SMRs and will provide significant information for the process of selecting optimal sites for these small nuclear reactors in the context of renewable energy deficits.

2. Literature Review

2.1. What Is Location Attractiveness for Power Plants?

Location attractiveness refers to the level of desirability or attractiveness of a given location for various economic, social, and environmental purposes, such as energy investments, tourism, residential relocation, or establishing businesses or services. It is a multidimensional concept that takes into account various factors, including the physical characteristics of the location, its accessibility, the presence of amenities or attractions, and the overall quality of life it offers. The attractiveness of a place can be assessed using indicator models that consider multiple dimensions [14]. For example, in a study on investment attractiveness in Poland, a multidimensional indicator model was developed to assess the level of attractiveness of cities and municipalities in the country [14].

Location attractiveness for power plants refers to the desirability of a specific geographic location for the installation and operation of power generation facilities. Several factors contribute to the attractiveness of a location for different types of power plants, including water availability, temperature conditions, land use, environmental impact, and resource availability.

For power plants that require cooling water, such as thermal power plants, the availability of water resources is a crucial factor in determining location attractiveness. Dry-cooling technology, which minimizes freshwater consumption, allows power plants to be located closer to load centers rather than cooling water resources [15]. This flexibility in plant siting enables power plants to be located in areas with high electricity demand, reducing transmission losses and improving overall efficiency.

In the case of photovoltaic (PV) power plants, geographical location plays a significant role in determining their viability and attractiveness. Extreme temperature conditions can affect the performance of PV cells, reducing the utilization of the dc-bus voltage range [16]. Therefore, attractive geographical locations for PV installations are those with favorable temperature conditions that optimize the power output of the solar panels. Land use and land cover are important considerations for solar PV power plant installations. Open areas with minimal land cover, such as cultivated/agricultural areas, forest areas, and urban areas, are considered highly suitable for solar power plant installations [17]. This ensures that the solar panels receive maximum sunlight and are not obstructed by surrounding structures or vegetation.

Water power plants, such as hydroelectric plants, are favored in locations with suitable natural characteristics, such as coastal rivers, which provide a consistent and reliable water supply [18]. Similarly, wind power plants require suitable wind resources, and the selection of a suitable location is crucial for maximizing energy production and minimizing environmental impacts [19].

In the case of CO₂ storage, the location of suitable coal beds for CO₂ injection is a key factor. These coal beds are typically located near existing or planned coal-fired power plants, reducing transportation costs and ensuring proximity to the source of CO₂ emissions [20].

A factor that can influence location attractiveness is the presence of natural resources or energy sources. Godlewska-Majkowska and Komor [21] highlighted this energy factor as an important consideration for the investment attractiveness of regions for agricultural enterprises. The increasing importance of production scales and rising energy consumption in agriculture make the availability of energy resources a crucial factor in determining the attractiveness of a location for agricultural activities.

Geographic proximity is another factor that can influence location attractiveness. Meyners et al. [22] highlighted the importance of geographic proximity in the adoption of low-carbon technologies. Research on innovation diffusion suggests that spatial distance conditions the likelihood of social influence, meaning that closer proximity increases the likelihood and strength of influence. This implies that locations in close proximity to each other are more likely to adopt similar technologies or practices.

The impact of financial development and economic growth on energy consumption can also affect location attractiveness. Chortareas et al. [23] discussed the complex relationship between financial development, economic growth, and energy consumption. Financial development is often associated with economic growth, which in turn can lead to increased energy consumption. Therefore, locations with strong financial systems and robust economic growth may be more attractive for certain industries or investment opportunities.

The concept of regional innovation systems (RIS) is relevant to the factors of attractiveness for renewable energy investment locations. RIS involves interactive learning and knowledge transfer among companies, organizations, and institutions. It plays a crucial role in the development and diffusion of renewable energy technologies [24].

The assessment of investment attractiveness involves considering both hard factors (easily measurable factors that directly affect operations) and soft factors (difficult to measure but shape the investment environment). Factors such as the current state of investment activity, potential of the agro-industrial complex, staffing indicators, production factors, and financial and institutional conditions influence investment attractiveness [21].

The development of local energy sovereignty is an important factor in the attractiveness of an investment location. Areas with insufficient energy and innovation capacities can be supported in their development of local energy sovereignty through the implementation of appropriate policies and strategies [25].

In summary, location attractiveness is influenced by a combination of factors, such as population density, land use, availability of natural resources or energy sources, economic activity, physical characteristics, geographic proximity, and financial development. These factors can vary depending on the specific context and the needs of the stakeholders involved. Understanding and evaluating these factors is crucial for making informed decisions regarding investment, resource utilization, or other activities in a particular location.

Overall, the attractiveness of a location for power plant installations depends on various factors specific to each type of power generation technology. These factors include water availability, temperature conditions, land use, environmental impact, and resource availability. By considering these factors, stakeholders can identify and select optimal locations for power plant installations, maximizing energy production and minimizing environmental impacts.

2.2. Implementation of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

SMR (Small Modular Reactor) nuclear reactors are advanced nuclear reactors that have a smaller size and modular design compared to traditional large-scale nuclear reactors. They are typically defined as reactors that can produce electric power of up to about 300 MW(e) [26]. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) present numerous benefits in comparison to their larger counterparts. These advantages encompass enhanced site suitability, the implementation of cutting-edge passive safety mechanisms, decreased initial construction expenses, as well as diminished inventories on both primary and secondary sides of the reactor system [27].

The notion of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) has garnered global recognition owing to their modular configuration, compact footprint, and reduced capital expenditures for research, development, and construction in contrast to conventional reactors [28]. They are seen as a potential solution to meet the growing demand for energy while reducing emissions [9]. SMRs can be deployed in various applications, such as replacing older nuclear, natural gas, and coal power facilities, providing process heat in industrial applications, and supplying reliable emissions-free energy to remote locations with limited grid access [29].

The economic viability of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) remains a subject of contention. Certain studies propose that SMRs might possess greater economic competitiveness than their larger counterparts, attributed to factors like the incorporation of multiple units, heightened factory production efficiency and learning curves, shorter construction timelines, streamlined plant design, and optimized unit scheduling [30]. However, there is a need for further quantitative studies that compare different SMR designs with large plants [30].

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are currently under development across various nations, with regulatory bodies actively collaborating to establish a robust and standardized regulatory framework. This framework aims to guarantee safety measures and environmental protection throughout the implementation of SMRs [28]. On the other hand, numerous challenges persist and necessitate resolution within this context. These include comprehending the behavior of nuclear fuel under elevated pressures and temperatures, managing radiation exposure during both routine operations and unforeseen incidents, as well as devising effective strategies for the handling and disposal of nuclear waste streams [28].

The advantages of SMRs include their small size, modular design, low capital costs, quick return on investment, improved safety due to passive systems, enhanced containment efficiency, and adaptability to be coupled with other energy-consuming systems, such as desalination plants, to create cogeneration plants [31]. SMRs also have the potential to enhance grid reliability and contribute to the resilience of integrated energy systems [32,33].

In terms of fuel options, SMRs can use different types of fuel, including mixed oxide fuel (U, Th)O₂, which can contribute to the sustainability of nuclear energy [34]. The use of advanced fuel lattices cooled with hydroxides and moderated by graphite and various types of metal hydroxides has also been explored for compact, high-temperature SMRs [35].

In conclusion, small SMR nuclear reactors are advanced nuclear reactors with a smaller size and modular design compared to traditional large-scale reactors. They offer several advantages, including increased site compatibility, advanced safety systems, lower capital costs, and the ability to be deployed in various applications. However, there are still challenges that need to be addressed, and further research is needed to assess their economic competitiveness and address issues related to fuel behavior, radiation exposure, and waste management.

The introduction of Small Modular Reactor (SMR) technology is currently in progress in various countries around the world.

One country where work on the introduction of SMR technology is in progress is Indonesia. An initiative has been launched to evaluate the sustainability of Indonesia’s proposed nuclear energy system, employing the IAEA INPRO Methodology [36].

The project’s objective was to cultivate an understanding of sustainability concerns in order to bolster strategic planning and decision-making related to the development of nuclear energy in Indonesia. The assessment of the proposed nuclear energy system’s sustainability was grounded in diverse criteria encompassing economics, infrastructure, waste management, physical protection, proliferation resistance, environmental impact, and safety.

Canada, the UK, and the United States are also actively pursuing the introduction of SMRs. These countries have dedicated national strategies and have provided generous funding for the development of SMRs [37]. The strategies and focus of these countries vary, but they all aim to promote the development and deployment of SMRs as a solution to the challenges faced by traditional large-scale nuclear power plants, such as high cost, cost escalation, and construction delays.

The initial phase of the pre-licensing vendor design review for the SMR-160 small modular reactor, developed by Holtec International, has been successfully concluded by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) [38]. This instance underscores the proactive engagement of the regulatory authority in evaluating the safety assessment of an SMR design created in adherence to the standards and regulations of a different nation. Ukraine has shown national interest in the introduction of SMR technology and has been considering the application of SMR regulators’ forum results for SMR licensing [39].

The Middle East region, including countries such as Saudi Arabia, has also shown interest in the development and use of SMR technology [40]. SMRs offer a potentially attractive nuclear energy option for the region, particularly for non-power applications such as water desalination, petroleum refineries, and chemical plants. SMRs can provide a reliable and sustainable source of heat for these applications, reducing the dependence on fossil fuels.

The deployment of SMRs is not limited to specific countries but is a global effort. There are currently more than 50 SMR designs developed using different reactor technologies in various stages of readiness [39]. The market dimensions for SMRs and the countries where they may be deployed remain unclear. However, there is significant and growing interest in SMRs, and several countries are actively exploring the construction of SMRs and the factors that foster their deployment [41].

In summary, work on the introduction of SMR technology is in progress in various countries around the world, including Indonesia, Canada, the UK, the United States, Ukraine, and the Middle East region. These countries have dedicated national strategies, regulatory frameworks, and funding to support the development and deployment of SMRs. The deployment of SMRs is seen as a potential solution to the challenges faced by traditional large-scale nuclear power plants and offers opportunities for sustainable and reliable energy generation. On the other hand, the licensing of small modular reactors (SMRs) in the US, Canada, Europe, and Asia faces several difficulties. One of the main challenges is the high upfront capital costs associated with SMRs. In the United States, for example, very few utility companies have the required equity to finance the large upfront capital costs associated with reactors over 700 MWe [42]. This financial barrier makes it difficult for companies to invest in SMRs and obtain the necessary licenses for their operation. Another difficulty is the regulatory issues associated with SMRs. The development and deployment of SMRs require the resolution of key regulatory issues identified by regulatory bodies such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and industry [42]. These regulatory issues can include safety concerns, waste management, and licensing requirements. Resolving these issues and obtaining the necessary regulatory approvals can be a time-consuming and complex process. Additionally, licensing out patents for SMR technologies can also pose challenges. Small firms and large firms are more likely to license out their patented inventions, while SMEs may face more difficulties in licensing out their patents than large firms [43]. The major barrier to licensing out patents is informational, as identifying suitable partners for licensing can be challenging. Furthermore, the existing licensing rules and regulatory frameworks may not adequately address the unique characteristics of SMRs. The legal regime in some countries may impede the promotion, application, and implementation of SMRs [44]. The licensing process for SMRs may require amendments to the existing international regulatory framework and improved licensing supervision, including environmental assessment and public participation [44].

In summary, the challenges faced by investors in the licensing of SMRs (Small Modular Reactors) encompass high initial capital costs, regulatory issues, patent licensing challenges, and the need for improving existing legal and regulatory frameworks. These challenges must be addressed to promote the development and deployment of SMRs in specific regions.

2.3. Location Conditions for Energy Investments?

The location conditions for energy investments depend on various factors, including habitat quality, energetic condition, costs and benefits of moving, global sustainability pressures, locational resource endowments, investment costs, regulatory background, financial and non-financial dimensions, environmental effects, earnings, governmental incentives, merger and acquisition, access to sources, contract conditions, customer expectations, geographical proximity, natural conditions, construction cost, initial investment, distance to substation, job creation, economic risk, investment risk, solar energy potential, and energy factors [21,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53].

Investing more energy in dispersal may improve the quality of breeding habitat, but it limits the energy available for reproduction [45]. The relative effects of breeding habitat quality and energetic condition determine the value of investment in dispersal or reproduction [45].

The costs and benefits of moving play a role in the selection of a wintering site by migratory birds [46]. If the costs of moving are high and the benefits are low, juveniles tend to stay where they initially settle [46]. Similarly, geographical proximity is a significant investment criterion in the community-financed energy sector [50].

Greater international experience allows energy utilities to take advantage of unique locational resource endowments for renewable resources and develop capabilities for investing in locations with less optimal conditions [47]. For example, high solar irradiance or optimal wind conditions can be leveraged for renewable energy investments [47].

The location decision for renewable energy production should consider investment costs, grid capacity, and private profitability [48]. A socially optimal location may lead to higher grid investment costs but better wind conditions [48].

In evaluating renewable energy investment alternatives, criteria such as environmental effects and earnings are significant [49]. Wind and solar are often considered the most attractive renewable energy investment alternatives [49]. Governmental incentives and merger and acquisition strategies can enhance location selection and overall performance [49].

China prioritizes the development of biomass energy due to geographical limitations of other renewable energy sources [51]. In Iran, the construction of solar sites is based on criteria such as construction cost, initial investment, distance to substation, job creation, economic risk, and investment risk [52].

The potential for solar power generation in different regions is assessed based on factors such as solar energy potential and location [53]. Regions with high solar energy potential, such as Beja in Portugal, are considered suitable for solar energy investments [53].

The energy factor is an important consideration in the investment attractiveness of regions for agricultural enterprises [21]. Access to energy and energy management contribute to the sustainability and locational advantages of agricultural production [21].

In summary, the location conditions for energy investments involve considerations of habitat quality, energetic condition, costs and benefits of moving, global sustainability pressures, locational resource endowments, investment costs, regulatory background, financial and non-financial dimensions, environmental effects, earnings, governmental incentives, merger and acquisition, access to sources, contract conditions, customer expectations, geographical proximity, natural conditions, construction cost, initial investment, distance to substation, job creation, economic risk, investment risk, solar energy potential, and energy factors. These factors influence the decision-making process and the selection of optimal locations for energy investments.

2.4. What Are the Location Factors and Attractiveness Factors of SMR (Small Modular Reactors) in the Region?

The location of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) in a region is determined by several factors. These factors include economic, social, environmental, geographic, and technical considerations. The selection of suitable sites for SMRs involves a comprehensive analysis of these factors to ensure long-term efficient power generation planning [54].

Economic viability stands as a pivotal consideration when pinpointing suitable locations for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). SMR designs capitalize on several factors, including the integration of multiple units, enhanced efficiency in factory production and learning, abbreviated construction timelines, streamlined plant design, and optimized unit scheduling. These aspects collectively contribute to making SMRs economically competitive in contrast to their larger reactor counterparts [30]. The cost of construction, operation, and maintenance of SMRs plays a crucial role in their location selection. The government’s fiscal capacity and power grid capacity policies also need to be considered [55].

Social factors also play a significant role in determining the location of SMRs. The social acceptance and public perception of nuclear power can influence the decision-making process. Social surveys and analysis of existing policies can help in identifying suitable locations for SMRs [55]. Public engagement and community involvement are essential to address concerns and ensure the acceptance of SMRs in the selected region.

Environmental considerations are crucial in the site selection process for SMRs. The impact on the environment, including air quality, water resources, and biodiversity, needs to be assessed. The preferable lithology for nuclear reactor sites is composed of stable and hard rock structures [56]. The availability of water for cooling processes is also an important factor to consider [56].

Geographic factors, such as the availability of electrical infrastructure and transmission lines, are also considered in the site selection process. The proximity to existing and retiring generation facilities can influence the decision [54]. The geographical considerations in site selection for SMRs can vary depending on the region. For example, in Saskatchewan, Canada, the research focused on evaluating geographical considerations in site selection due to the province’s high greenhouse gas emissions and uranium production [57].

Technical factors, including safety and security, are critical in determining the location of SMRs. The enhanced safety features of SMRs compared to traditional reactors make them attractive options for power generation [58]. The proximity to population centers and emergency response capabilities are also taken into account to ensure the safety of the surrounding communities [59].

On the other hand, two of the key advantages of SMRs are their small size and modular design, which allows for factory fabrication and easy transportation to the installation site [54,55]. This modularity enables SMRs to be deployed in a distributed manner, providing power and steam to specific locations, such as remote mines and communities that are not served by the grid [56]. These niche markets can benefit from SMRs by replacing diesel plants with high fuel costs and providing an attractive renewable energy alternative [56].

Furthermore, the integration of SMRs with other industrial processes, such as pulp and paper mills, can enhance their attractiveness. SMRs can be coupled with manufacturing processes to provide both electricity and steam, potentially replacing fossil fuels and reducing greenhouse gas emissions [54]. For example, a study conducted by the Idaho National Laboratory examined the integration of SMRs with pulp and paper mills, aiming to eliminate fossil fuel use and analyze the economic feasibility of modified plant operations [54].

In summary, the location attractiveness for SMRs is influenced by a combination of geographical, economic, social, and technological factors (

Table 1. Selected factors of SMR location attractiveness.

Factor	Authors	Description
Economic	Al-Anbagi and Wagner, 2022 [54]	Economic feasibility is a key factor in determining the location of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). SMR designs offer advantages such as increased factory production, reduced construction schedules, and unit timing, making them more economically competitive than large reactors. The costs of construction, operation, and maintenance of SMRs, as well as the government’s fiscal capacity and power grid capacity policies, are important considerations.
	Stewart and Shirvan, 2022 [30]	Multiple units, plant design simplification, and learning from previous construction contribute to the economic competitiveness of SMRs. The utilization of SMR designs helps leverage these factors, resulting in cost savings compared to large reactors.
	Zhang et al., 2020 [55]	The cost of construction, operation, and maintenance of SMRs should be analyzed in conjunction with the government’s fiscal capacity and power grid capacity policies to determine suitable locations. These economic factors play a significant role in the decision-making process.
Social	Zhang et al., 2020 [55]	Social factors, including social acceptance and public perception of nuclear power, are crucial in the location selection of SMRs. Conducting social surveys and analyzing existing policies can aid in identifying suitable locations. Public engagement and community involvement are essential for addressing concerns and ensuring the acceptance of SMRs within the selected region.
Environmental	Sudjadi, 2022 [56]	Environmental considerations are important in the site selection process for SMRs. The impact on air quality, water resources, and biodiversity should be assessed. Geological stability, specifically the presence of stable and hard rock structures, is preferable for nuclear reactor sites. Availability of water for cooling processes is also a crucial factor.
Geographic	Almalki et al., 2019 [57]	Geographic factors, such as the availability of electrical infrastructure and transmission lines, are considered in the site selection process. Proximity to existing and retiring generation facilities can influence the decision. Geographic considerations can vary depending on the region and specific circumstances, such as high greenhouse gas emissions and uranium production in the case of Saskatchewan, Canada.
Technical	Krall et al., 2022 [58]	Technical factors, including safety and security, play a critical role in determining the location of SMRs. SMRs offer enhanced safety features compared to traditional reactors, making them attractive options for power generation. Proximity to population centers and emergency response capabilities are also taken into account to ensure the safety of surrounding communities.
	Curzio et al., 2020 [59]	The technical aspects of site selection for SMRs include considering the proximity to population centers to minimize potential risks and enhance emergency response capabilities. Safety and security measures are prioritized to ensure the safe operation of SMRs and the protection of the environment and local communities.

). Geographical considerations include the availability of resources, access to transmission lines, and proximity to electrical and non-electrical loads. Economic factors, such as the cost of land and infrastructure, play a role in determining the feasibility of SMR deployment. The modularity and flexibility of SMRs make them suitable for niche markets and integration with other industrial processes. Technological advancements, such as enhanced safety features and online refueling capabilities, further contribute to the attractiveness of SMRs as a sustainable energy option.

Locational attractiveness for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) refers to the extent to which a given area meets key economic, social, environmental, geographic, and technical criteria necessary for the efficient and safe deployment and operation of SMRs.

Locational attractiveness of SMRs involves evaluating potential sites based on their ability to provide economic competitiveness, social acceptance, minimal environmental impact, infrastructure availability, and high levels of safety and emergency response capability.

Locational attractiveness of SMRs is an indicator that takes into account various factors such as costs, social acceptance, environmental compliance, infrastructure availability, and technical aspects to assess which location is optimal for the effective and sustainable deployment of SMRs.

2.5. How Can Local Energy Systems Be Created, in the Context of Small SMR Nuclear Reactors Combined with Renewable Energy Sources?

Creating local energy systems in the context of small SMR nuclear reactors combined with renewable energy sources involves integrating the capabilities of both technologies to provide reliable and sustainable power. SMRs offer several advantages, including flexibility, speed of construction, and the ability to be built in locations not suitable for large nuclear power plants [60]. These reactors can be combined with renewable energy sources such as wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) power generation to address the intermittency issues associated with renewables [27]. By coupling SMRs with renewable energy sources, the grid variability caused by daily load demand changes and renewable intermittency can be absorbed [27]. This integration can help ensure a reliable supply of electricity and heat, making SMRs suitable for distributed generation in energy-intensive industries or remote communities [60].

Thermal Energy Storage (TES) systems can be employed to further enhance the integration of SMRs and renewable energy sources. TES systems can help absorb grid variability and provide a buffer for the intermittent nature of renewables [27]. By storing excess energy during periods of high generation and releasing it during periods of high demand, TES systems can help balance the supply and demand of electricity [27]. This can reduce the need for load follow operation in nuclear reactors, which can place thermal and mechanical stresses on the fuel and other reactor components [27].

The combination of SMRs and renewable energy sources in local energy systems can contribute to the transition to more sustainable, affordable, and reliable energy systems [61]. It offers the potential to reduce carbon emissions and dependence on fossil fuels while providing a stable and resilient power supply [40]. Additionally, the integration of SMRs with renewable energy sources can support the development of hybrid energy systems that combine nuclear energy with renewables and traditional fossil energy to produce chemicals, fuels, and electricity [40].

In conclusion, creating local energy systems with small SMR nuclear reactors combined with renewable energy sources involves integrating the capabilities of both technologies to provide reliable and sustainable power. SMRs offer flexibility and can be built in various locations, while renewable energy sources address the intermittency issues associated with renewables. Thermal Energy Storage systems can further enhance the integration by absorbing grid variability and balancing the supply and demand of electricity. This combination contributes to the transition to more sustainable and reliable energy systems and supports the development of hybrid energy systems.

2.6. How Can Small SMR Nuclear Reactors Be a Solution to the Region’s Renewable Energy Deficits?

Small modular reactors (SMRs) have emerged as a potential solution to the renewable energy deficits in the Middle East region (MER) [40]. Currently, the MER relies heavily on fossil fuels for various heat applications, such as water desalination, petroleum refineries, and chemical plants, in addition to electricity generation [40]. SMRs offer a promising alternative by providing a nuclear energy option that can meet the future energy demand in the region [40]. These reactors can be integrated into nuclear–renewable hybrid energy systems, combining nuclear energy with renewable energy sources and traditional fossil energy, to produce chemicals, fuels, and electricity [40].

One of the advantages of SMRs is their small size, with a capacity of less than 300 MW [40]. This allows for flexibility in construction and the ability to build them in locations that may not be suitable for large nuclear power plants [60]. SMRs have the potential to be strategically positioned near energy-intensive industries or in remote communities, functioning as integral components of distributed generation. This deployment approach guarantees a consistent and dependable supply of both electricity and heat [60]. Additionally, they can be strategically placed at decommissioned coal-fired power plants, capitalizing on pre-existing infrastructure and leading to diminished construction expenses [60].

In addition to their flexibility and versatility, SMRs offer other benefits. These reactors incorporate advanced passive safety systems to effectively manage decay heat, offering the advantage of reduced capital costs for construction and minimized primary and secondary-side inventories [27]. SMRs can also contribute to the reduction of transuranic (TRU) waste production and the extension of burn-up [34]. Furthermore, SMRs can be converted into U-233-producing reactors, which can improve the conversion factor and reduce the production of TRU [34].

The implementation of SMRs in the energy systems of different regions, including Ukraine and Indonesia, has been studied. In Ukraine, SMRs are seen as suitable for modern hybrid electric power systems, where they can be integrated with renewable energy sources and contribute to the reliable supply of electricity and heat [60]. In Indonesia, SMRs are considered a flexible option to meet the country’s electricity demand, especially in remote locations and islands [62]. The integration of SMRs with renewable energy sources can help achieve a more sustainable and reliable energy mix [62].

Overall, SMRs have the potential to address the renewable energy deficits in the MER and other regions. Their small size, flexibility in construction, and ability to integrate with renewable energy sources make them an attractive option for meeting future energy demand. However, further research and development are needed to ensure the safe and efficient operation of SMRs and to address any challenges associated with their implementation.

3. Materials and Methods

To evaluate the potential for locating SMRs in Polish counties, we utilized 17 indicators, each representing one of the various factors which were thought to be important in terms of site attractiveness. Such factors include geographical and environmental, economic, social, technical, energy demand, and renewable energy potential. The study area encompasses 380 counties (powiaty) in Poland, classified under the NUTS4 statistical classification level. NUTS4, which stands for “Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics Level 4”, is a classification system utilized to standardize and facilitate statistical analyses of the fourth level of European subdivisions. This classification encompasses the smallest administrative units, such as counties, districts, or regions.

In this study, a multidimensional model of location attractiveness was developed using the k-means method and data from the statistical office (

Table 2. Indicators used for the analysis of location attractiveness of SMRs in Poland.

Factor	Indicator	Characteristic	Year	Source
Economic	x1—Personal income tax (PIT)	Shares in taxes constituting state budget revenues, value of personal income tax in PLN in the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x2—Corporate income tax (CIT)	Shares in taxes constituting state budget revenues, value of corporate income tax in PLN in the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x3—Income from county assets	Total value of income from county assets	2021	BDL GUS
Social	x4—University Graduates	University graduates in total per 10,000 inhabitants in the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x5—Councilors with higher education	Total number of councilors with higher education in the county	2022	BDL GUS
	x6—Registered unemployed with higher education	Total number of unemployed with higher education in the county	2022	BDL GUS
Environmental and Geographical	x7—Dust pollution	Total dust pollution (t) per 1 km2 of area of the county	2022	BDL GUS
	x8—Protected areas	Share of legally protected area of the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x9—Protection of air and climate	County expenditure on climate and air protection	2021	BDL GUS
	x10—The number of residents	County total population	2022	BDL GUS
Technical	x11—District heating	District heating network density in km2	2022	BDL GUS
	x12—Boiler houses	Total number of the boiling rooms within the county	2021	BDL GUS
Energy Demand and Renewable Energy Potential	x13—Electricity consumption (kWh)	Total electricity consumption (kWh) in the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x14—Heating energy	Total sales of heating energy for residential buildings, offices, and institutions in GJ within the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x15—Electricity demand	Total electricity consumers in the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x16—Gas demand	Percentage of the population using the gas network within the county	2021	BDL GUS
	x17—Renewable energy potential	Generation potential of RES installations in (MW) of the county	2022	URE

). The k-means method was chosen because it is a widely used clustering algorithm that can effectively group data points into clusters based on their similarity [63]. The data used in this study were obtained from the statistical office, which provides reliable and comprehensive information on various factors that contribute to location attractiveness [64].

The k-means method was applied to the dataset obtained from the statistical office concerning energy demand and renewable energy potential (Table 2) in order to identify clusters of locations with similar characteristics. This clustering process involved iteratively assigning data points to the nearest centroid and updating the centroids based on the mean of the assigned data points [63]. By using this method, the centroids were attracted to dense regions, ensuring that the model captured the attractiveness of locations with high population density or economic activity.

The selection of indicators (Table 2) took into account the aforementioned assumptions regarding the attractiveness of locations for SMRs. The statistical data were standardized and grouped, allowing the derivation of composite indicators for each factor. The process of developing the typology of counties based on the attractiveness of locations for SMRs involved the following steps: identifying factors, selecting empirical features, standardizing variables, calculating the zero sum of unitarization, grouping the surveyed population units by clusters, and assessing the durability of the indicator structure through k-means classification.

The attractiveness factors were evaluated using the method of linear ordering of standardized total data. The process begins with standardization by normalizing one-dimensional variables using the following formula:

$${x_{ij}}^{\prime }=\frac{x_{ij}-x_{minj}}{x_{maxj}-x_{minj}}\times 100$$

(1)

where:

• j is the next feature number,
• i is the next spatial unit number,
• x_ij’ is the normalized feature j in spatial unit i,
• x_ij is the value of feature j in spatial unit i.

If the nature of the variable is different, for example, if it includes destimulants or nominants, the destimulant substitution procedure should be applied:

$${x_{ij}}^{\prime }=\frac{x_{maxj}-x_{ij}}{x_{maxj}-x_{minj}}\times 100$$

(2)

4. Results

To facilitate clarification of the achieved results, the above mentioned indicators used in the study have been grouped into four distinct types of clusters (

Table 3. Mean values of indicators for the clusters.

Capital	Indicator	Type
		1	2	3	4
		Mean Value of Indicators for the Clusters
Economic	x1—Personal income tax (PIT)	22,103,368.22 −	1,464,796,231.75 ++	106,520,910.07 ~	21,289,764.72 −
	x2—Corporate income tax (CIT)	1,298,290.91 −	187,300,294.02 ++	8,562,257.55 ~	1,225,436.02 −
	x3—Income from county assets	2,129,342.62 −	247,660,882.12 ++	19828324.22 +	1,620,255.82 −
Social	x4—University graduates	5.68 −−	293.20 ++	53.16 ++	5.83 −−
	x5—Councilors with higher education	14.81 −−	32.67 ++	18.86 ++	15.30 −−
	x6—Registered unemployed with higher education	194.74 −	2019.33 ++	371.59 +	205.06 −
Environmental and Geographical	x7—Dust pollution	0.19 −	0.51 ++	0.63 ++	0.08 −−
	x8—Protected areas	23.90 −	12.89 −−	21.06 −−	32.32 +
	x9—Protection of air and climate	21.43 −	11.94 −−	38.55 ~	41.34 ~
	x10—The number of residents	74,679.33 −	591,146.50 ++	111,473.41 +	72,161.62 −
Technical	x11—District heating	0.07 −−	1.59 ++	0.58 ++	0.05 −−
	x12—Boiler houses	77.78 −	415.58 ++	114.25 ++	68.63 −−
Energy Demand and Renewable Energy Potential	x13—Electricity consumption (kWh)	58,475,281.53 −	547,229,386.64 ++	89,484,297.40 ~	59,345,550.13 −
	x14—Heating energy	272,735.70 −	7354,582.42 ++	668,085.75 ~	198,644.39 −
	x15—Electricity demand	29,695.67 −	305,441.33 ++	47,074.93 +	28,017.34 −
	x16—Gas demand	37.28 −	78.33 ++	77.51 ++	30.12 −−
	x17—Renewable energy potential	200.85 ++	30.20 −	15.28 −−	30.16 −

K-means clustering description: k = 4, n = 380, sum squared error (SSE) = 12.13355174. Symbol description of standardized value of centroids: ++ very high (>$M+0.25SD$), + high (>$M+0.075SD$), ~ medium (>$M-0.075SD)$, − low (>$M-0.25SD$), −− very low (<$M-0.25SD$).

), These clusters serve as the foundational elements of the model. The k-means algorithm has been commonly used as clustering technique by various researchers in order to organize the input data into k-clusters. This clustering technique based on neighborhoods is an algorithm designed to segment data by partitioning them into multiple distinct clusters, ensuring that each observation is exclusively assigned to a single group. The division of data is based on maximizing the similarity between two data cases if they are in the identical group, while minimizing it if they are part of distinct categories [65].

Every cluster type can be characterized by considering the prevailing factors. To define the configuration of every type, the factor value for a particular type was ascertained, and a suitable symbol was attributed to it, aiding the understanding of the acquired outcomes. The factor’s value was evaluated concerning the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) of the entire study population, following the subsequent classification:

$$\begin{array}{c}{M}^{\prime }>M+0.25SD\text{ very high }(++),\\ M^{\prime }>M+0.075SD\text{ high }(+),\\ M^{\prime }>M-0.075SD\text{ medium }(~),\\ M^{\prime }>M-0.25SD\text{ low }(-),\\ M^{\prime }<M-0.25SD\text{ very low }(--),\end{array}$$

(3)

where:

• $M^{\prime }$ is the average capital value for a type,
• $M$ is the average capital value for the entire set,
• $SD$ is the standard deviation for the entire set.

Upon the application of the Formula (3), we derived an assessment matrix for individual factors. A well-balanced factor value distribution is achieved when all factors yield similar and relatively high values, differing only by one category. Conversely, an imbalanced pattern is observed when there is a notable disparity in the assessment of at least one factor compared to the others.

As previously indicated, the application of the k-means analysis algorithm, when used on the dataset regarding energy demand and renewable energy potential, resulted in the grouping of counties into four clusters, as shown in Table 3. Table 3 also presents the mean values of selected indicators representing factors significant for the location attractiveness of SMRs, enabling the classification of the clusters based on location attractiveness.

In total, all of Poland’s counties (380) were classified based on cluster similarities, with cluster 4 comprising the vast majority of counties, accounting for almost 63% of the total. The second-largest cluster is number 3, with 103 counties, representing around 27% of the total. Cluster number 1 is the third largest, accounting for 7.1% of the counties, while the smallest cluster, number 2, consists of 12 counties and has a 3.2% share. What is significant is that, despite having the lowest share, cluster number 2 concentrates the biggest cities and population centers with great economic, social, geographical, and energy demand potentials, which could be seen after analyzing the values of the means of the indicators. Clusters 1 and 4 are quite similar in terms of achieved mean values, where economic, social, and technical factors do not differ too much. However, what stands out and significantly impacts the separation of these two clusters is the fact that counties in cluster 1, on average, have a significantly greater renewable energy generation potential. Furthermore, as evident from (Figure 1), cluster 1 counties are primarily concentrated in the northern part of the country, which provides them with a favorable geographical position for generating renewable energy. Finally, counties belonging to cluster 3 predominantly consist of middle-sized towns and cities, where the mean values of indicator factors are notably higher compared to clusters 1 and 4, but visibly lower than those in cluster 2.

The obtained results have enabled the classification of the counties into four types based on clusters in terms of the location attractiveness for SMRs. Although there are significant differences in the mean values of the factor indicators, the location attractiveness for SMRs could be correlated with the renewable energy potential and energy demand. Additionally, it is crucial to consider technical factors to effectively utilize the existing infrastructure. While economic, environmental, and social factors should also be taken into account when determining the optimal location for an SMR, they should not be considered as primary factors. Nevertheless, the statistical classification algorithm allowed to outline four distinct types of clusters.

Type 1: Very Low SMR Location Attractiveness/Development of Renewable Energy. As shown in (Table 3), this type of county is based on cluster 1, where values of the factors which were thought to be important in terms of location attractiveness achieve rather low or very low scores. But, on the other hand, the very high mean value of renewable energy potential suggests that this type of county must have a location handicap in terms of renewable energy generation abilities. As can be seen on the map (Figure 1), most of the Type 1 counties are located in the northern farming lowlands of Poland, in close proximity to the coastline, which provides perfect conditions for producing renewable energy, not only from wind but also from other sources like biomass. The geographical location of Type 1 counties allows them to focus on renewable energy sources, and that, combined with low electricity consumption and generally low values of energy demand-related means, suggests that these counties, in particular, would not significantly benefit from the location of SMRs within them. Since renewable power generation abilities are already relatively high, policies regarding managing these counties could further focus on exploiting the benefits of local geography or perhaps on utilizing the sea itself with the construction of offshore wind power plants.

Type 2: High SMR Location Attractiveness. Type 2 counties are distinguished by their values, which place them in cluster 2. As mentioned earlier, these counties represent just over 3% of all analyzed counties. However, they encompass the largest cities in Poland, accounting for a significant portion of the country’s population, economic activity, social potential, energy demand, and technical infrastructure. These characteristics are clearly reflected in the predominantly very high scores across various factors in cluster 2 (Table 3). Notably, the mean values for environmental and geographical factors suggest that this cluster has relatively few protected areas and faces significant challenges related to very high dust pollution. This issue is further compounded by low spending on air and climate protection measures. Additionally, Type 2 counties appear to have limited capacity for renewable energy production, coupled with high energy consumption. Considering all of the above mentioned factors, Type 2 counties have perfect conditions for the location of SMR’s. The very high scores in terms of technical, economic, social, and energy demand factors could be effectively utilized for the location and later operation of those reactors. Moreover, given the availability of technical infrastructure, the presence of old coal-oriented facilities, which are not uncommon in these counties, could be repurposed to house the nuclear reactors, thereby reducing the overall costs of the investment.

Type 3: Average SMR Location Attractiveness. Type 3 counties primarily consist of medium-sized towns and cities, with a few exceptions. Nevertheless, these counties also accommodate a significant portion of Poland’s population, social potential, economy, technical infrastructure, and energy demand. However, it is essential to note that the mean values for these counties are visibly lower compared to Type 2 counties. What stands out the most is that Type 3 counties appear to have medium to high energy demand and the lowest score in terms of renewable energy potential. This, combined with the highest mean value of dust pollution and moderate spending on air and climate protections, suggests the need for modernizing the local energy system. Given the very high pollution levels in Type 3 counties and their relatively favorable economic and technical background, SMRs could be considered a viable solution for reducing pollution and substituting for low renewable energy potential.

Type 4: Low SMR Location Attractiveness. Type 4 counties form the largest group, as mentioned earlier, accounting for approximately 63% of the total. These counties mainly consist of sparsely populated rural areas and farmlands where economic, social, technical potentials, and energy demand are at their lowest when compared to the other types of counties. What stands out, however, is the environmental and geographical factors, where mean values suggest relatively favorable conditions. On average, Type 4 counties have the lowest dust pollution, the most protected areas, and the highest spending on air and climate protection, indicating a very healthy natural environment. Therefore, due to their low energy demand, renewable energy potential, and relatively less favorable technical infrastructure, the location attractiveness for SMRs is relatively low in Type 4 counties. However, considering geographical proximity, some specific Type 4 counties might be seen as potentially better locations for SMRs than others, owing to their proximity to Type 2 counties, which are usually more densely developed, thus presenting potential obstacles for locating a nuclear reactor.

5. Discussion

Before making a decision to build a Small Modular Reactor (SMR), it is crucial to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the region’s energy needs and the potential of renewable energy sources. This analysis should take into account the perspective of the local community and involve citizens in the decision-making process. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be a valuable tool in assessing the potential of renewable energy sources and supporting the planning and integration of renewable energy technologies [66,67,68,69].

The increasing importance of renewable energy sources in Poland is supported by society, but their development faces obstacles. The main barriers include high initial investment costs, insufficient subsidies and tax reliefs, and inadequate grid infrastructure for wind farms [70]. Additionally, legal and regulatory restrictions regarding wind farm locations pose challenges for investors. Nevertheless, Poland has significant potential for photovoltaics and wind farms due to its geographical and climatic conditions. The use of renewable energy sources is crucial for energy security and environmental protection, especially in the context of depleting fossil fuel resources and the impact of conventional sources on the environment. Supported by EU legislation, the adoption of renewable energy sources contributes to achieving these goals.

Consumers play a significant role as market decision-makers, and aligning offerings with their environmental values is becoming increasingly crucial [71]. However, promoting eco-conscious consumerism comes with challenges. Environmental values and consumer preferences vary, requiring tailored marketing strategies and offerings for different target groups. Additionally, educating consumers about the benefits of eco-friendly consumption is essential to encourage informed and sustainable purchasing decisions. Effective communication and transparency regarding eco-friendly products are also key for enabling consumers to make conscious choices. Despite these challenges, growing environmental awareness and evolving consumer preferences present opportunities for businesses engaging in sustainable practices and providing products and services aligned with their customers’ environmental values.

One of the key factors to consider in this analysis is the legal framework and policy environment surrounding renewable energy. Olujobi [72] emphasizes the need for model legislation and comprehensive policy growth and execution to promote the use of renewable energy as a substitute source of energy [72]. The absence of a comprehensible legal regime with encouragement for the use of renewable energy is identified as a fundamental barrier to its utilization in Nigeria [72]. Similarly, Kar and Gopakumar [73] highlight the importance of exploiting indigenous renewable energy production to reduce dependence on energy imports [73].

Assessing the potential of renewable energy sources requires evaluating the natural conditions of each region and locality. Aithal et al. [66] discuss the importance of evaluating the potential of renewable resources in order to determine their best use under economically advantageous conditions [66,68], propose a methodology for evaluating renewable energy potential using GIS, which involves simulating meteorological parameters and considering restrictions such as geographical features and social environment [68]. Ostapenko et al. [67] also present a comprehensive methodology for using GIS to assess the potential of non-traditional and renewable energy sources at the regional level, taking into account energy, environmental, and socio-economic factors [67].

In addition to technical and environmental considerations, it is crucial to integrate indigenous knowledge and involve the local community in the decision-making process. McKemey et al. [74] highlight the importance of co-producing knowledge and revitalizing culture in indigenous communities for enhanced management of country [74].

Effective communication strategies are also essential for ensuring acceptance and support of SMR among the local community. Streimikiene et al. [75] emphasize the need for policy recommendations based on the results of studies on renewable energy acceptance by households [75]. Geissler et al. [76] discuss the importance of linking the National Energy and Climate Plan with municipal spatial planning to support sustainable investment in renewable energy sources [76].

In conclusion, before making a decision to build an SMR, a comprehensive analysis of the region’s energy needs and the potential of renewable energy sources is necessary. This analysis should consider the perspective of the local community, involve citizens in the decision-making process, and utilize tools such as GIS to assess the potential of renewable energy sources. Integrating indigenous knowledge and adopting effective communication strategies are key to ensuring acceptance and support of SMR among the local community. The legal framework and policy environment surrounding renewable energy should also be taken into account.

(Question 1) In summary, the attractiveness of locations for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) is influenced by a combination of factors, including renewable energy potential, the legal and policy environment, technical and environmental considerations, community involvement, effective communication strategies, energy security, and consumer preferences. A comprehensive analysis of these factors is necessary before making a decision to build an SMR in a particular location.

Based on the proposed typology, four types of energy development strategies can be suggested, taking into account different attractiveness of locations for SMR reactors:

• Renewable Energy Strategy. Focus on Type 1 counties, where the potential for renewable energy is very high. In these regions, investments can be made in wind farm development, photovoltaic installations, and biomass utilization for energy production. The aim is to maximize the use of natural resources that already exist there to minimize the negative effects of pollution.
• Energy Efficiency and Modernization Strategy. Concentrate on Type 3 counties, where energy is relatively intensively used, and where the potential for renewable energy is low. In these regions, programs supporting energy efficiency can be introduced, infrastructure can be modernized, and energy-saving practices can be promoted in construction, industry, and the public sector. Simultaneously, efforts should be made to reduce dust pollution and improve air quality.
• Energy Diversification Strategy. Target Type 2 counties, where the energy demand is highest but the capacity for renewable energy generation is limited. In these regions, the construction of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) can be considered, utilizing existing technical infrastructure. Concurrently, efforts should continue to develop renewable energy and modernize the grid to create a sustainable and secure energy system.
• Adaptation and Innovation Strategy. Create a strategy tailored to Type 4 counties, where both energy demand and the potential for renewable energy are relatively low. In these regions, the focus can be on adapting to changing market and climate conditions. Investments in innovative technologies can enable more efficient energy use, utilization of local resources, and support for local energy initiatives.

Developing appropriate energy development strategies for each type of county will allow for optimal utilization of available resources, minimizing negative environmental impacts, improving the country’s energy security, and achieving sustainable energy development. Considering these four strategic directions will enable the effective utilization of SMRs as part of the Polish energy mix, the pursuit of sustainable energy development, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and the strengthening Poland’s position as an innovative player in the international energy arena.

(Question 2) In summary, the attractiveness of locations for Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) depends on the interplay between the region’s energy demand, the potential for renewable energy, and the existing energy development strategies. The four proposed strategies consider these factors to determine the appropriate energy solutions for different types of counties, including the consideration of SMRs in regions where renewable energy potential is limited or cannot fully meet energy demands.

(Question 3) Based on the proposed typology of energy development strategies, Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) can, indeed, serve as a solution to the deficit of renewable energy in certain regions, providing a stable and reliable source of energy. Specifically, the Energy Diversification Strategy (III) targets regions classified as Type 2 counties, where the energy demand is high but the capacity for renewable energy generation is limited. In such areas, the construction and deployment of SMRs can be considered to be a complementary energy solution. While the primary focus remains on developing renewable energy sources and modernizing the grid to create a sustainable energy system, SMRs can play a vital role in meeting the region’s energy demands. By utilizing existing technical infrastructure, SMRs offer the advantage of generating electricity continuously, irrespective of weather conditions or daylight availability, which can help offset the intermittency issues often associated with renewable energy sources like wind and solar. By combining SMRs with continued efforts to develop renewable energy and improve energy efficiency through modernization programs, a balanced and diversified energy mix can be achieved in Type 2 counties. This approach ensures a more reliable and resilient energy supply while contributing to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and overall environmental impact. In conclusion, as part of the Energy Diversification Strategy, Small Modular Nuclear Reactors can be a valuable component of the energy mix in regions where the potential for renewable energy is limited. By carefully integrating SMRs with other sustainable energy solutions, it is possible to address the deficit of renewable energy and create a stable and reliable energy supply for these specific regions.

Further development of SMR technology: Research should focus on the exploration and advancement of advanced SMR technologies that are safer, more efficient, and economically viable. Innovations in reactor design, materials, and safety features should be studied to improve overall performance and social acceptance of SMRs. The potential for creating local energy systems, also known as microgrids, in various types of neighborhoods should be investigated. These systems can integrate renewable energy sources, energy storage, and SMRs to enhance energy security and resilience, especially in remote or rural areas. Continued research is necessary to develop and implement favorable policy and regulatory frameworks that encourage the adoption of renewable energy and SMRs while ensuring environmental protection and community engagement. Legislative patterns, as mentioned earlier, can serve as a reference point for policymakers. The economic viability of SMRs compared to other energy sources should be examined. Studies on financing mechanisms and financial incentives can help attract investments and reduce financial barriers associated with SMR deployment. Comprehensive research should assess the social and environmental impact of energy development strategies, including SMR implementation. Understanding potential social acceptance and environmental consequences will aid decision-making and community engagement. Research should investigate effective methods of involving local communities and stakeholders in the decision-making process regarding energy development projects. Community acceptance and support are crucial for successful implementation. Collaboration between countries and international organizations can facilitate knowledge exchange, best practices, and technological advancements in renewable energy and SMRs. Research should explore opportunities for international cooperation in the energy sector.

Implementing the above research directions will allow for a more comprehensive and robust energy development strategy that effectively integrates SMRs into the energy mix while supporting sustainable development and addressing challenges related to climate change and energy security.

6. Conclusions

The selection of attractive locations for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) is a complex process that involves a careful examination of various factors. Primarily, it requires a comprehensive analysis of the region’s energy demand and the potential of renewable energy sources. Understanding these data is critical in determining whether SMRs can effectively meet the energy requirements of a specific area. However, the attractiveness of a location is not solely dependent on energy-related factors. Legal and political frameworks pertaining to renewable energy play a significant role as well. Supportive policies, model regulations, and incentives for utilizing renewable energy enhance the appeal of locations that promote the development of sustainable energy sources, making them more suitable for SMRs.

Moreover, technical and environmental considerations also come into play when assessing the potential of renewable energy sources in a region. Tools like Geographic Information Systems (GIS) prove invaluable in evaluating the natural conditions of different areas and their suitability for implementing various energy solutions. Nevertheless, while technical and environmental factors are crucial, social aspects cannot be underestimated. To ensure the acceptance and success of SMR projects, it is imperative to involve the knowledge and perspectives of the local population. Engaging the community in decision-making processes related to energy is essential for gaining support for initiatives like the construction of SMRs.

Communication with the local community and achieving social acceptance are pivotal in the adoption of SMR technology. Effective communication strategies and educational initiatives about the benefits of renewable technologies are necessary to garner the backing of the local populace for SMRs. As the importance of renewable energy continues to grow, driven by increasing environmental awareness among consumers, the market potential for SMRs also rises. If these reactors align with customers’ environmental values, they become even more attractive as a viable energy solution.

The integration of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) with renewable energy sources represents a promising path towards creating a more sustainable and reliable energy system. To effectively integrate SMRs with renewable energy, it is necessary to consider several factors in future research.

Firstly, further research is required to provide more reliable cost estimates through expert analysis and cost-benefit assessments. Therefore, an essential area for further research is economic viability. Economic models for SMRs need improvement to attract more investors. Exploring alternative financing options to overcome high costs should also be examined. Furthermore, research should be conducted to assess the economic competitiveness of SMRs compared to other energy sources.

On the other hand, environmental impact assessments can also be conducted to evaluate the contribution of SMRs to greenhouse gas emissions reduction and the reduction of fossil fuel dependence. This will help determine the environmental benefits resulting from the integration of SMRs with renewable energy sources.

Finally, research should also assess the social and economic impacts of SMRs. This includes evaluating job creation, local economic development, and social acceptance. Understanding the social and economic implications of SMRs can influence policy decisions and address potential concerns and challenges.

In conclusion, the selection of attractive locations for Small Modular Reactors demands a holistic approach that takes into account a wide array of factors, including technical, economic, social, and environmental aspects. For the successful deployment of SMRs, it is crucial that actions related to renewable energy and SMRs align with local needs and energy policy goals. Ultimately, the goal should be to contribute to achieving a sustainable, secure, and clean energy future for the region and beyond.