Circular Economy Framework for Energy Recovery in Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Integration of Phytoremediation with Bioenergy Production
1.2. Organization of the Paper
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Review Methodology
2.2. Construction of Hydroponic Tanks
2.3. Selection of the Test Plants
2.4. Harvested Biomass from Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater
2.5. Relative Plant Growth Rate (RGR) of the Selected Plants at Different Retention Times
Scenario 1 | 80 g of the three selected plants (E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molesta) were separately cultivated in the hydroponic tanks containing the domestic wastewater. |
Scenario 2 | The treated and untreated water samples were collected at 2-day intervals at different retention times. |
Scenario 3 | Harvesting of the plants (biomass) was carried out every 7 days. |
Scenario 4 | The RGR was calculated at different stages of 6, 12 and 24 h retention times. |
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Outcome of the Review
3.2. Lifespan of Hydroponic Tanks in Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater
3.3. Selection of Aquatic Plants for Phytoremediation of Wastewater
3.4. Outcome of Biomass Harvested from Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater
3.4.1. RGR for E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molesta at 24 h Retention Time
3.4.2. RGR for E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molesta at 12 h Retention Time
3.4.3. RGR for E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molesta at 6 h Retention Time
4. Anticipated Challenges in Implementation of CE in Phytoremediation of Wastewater
- Selection of suitable technology for phytoremediation of wastewater by stakeholders and industries is one of the impediments that would hinder the successful deployment of CE concept.
- Monitoring the processes of wastewater phytoremediation requires a long time and space. Thus, there might be an inconsistent flow of valid input information.
- Insufficient information on the capital for investment, policies and data availability are barriers that would hinder the implementation of CE strategies in wastewater phytoremediation, particularly on an industrial scale.
- Another problem is the interdependencies between the plants, microorganisms, treatment systems and the natural environment. Additionally, integrating these essential components requires easy data exchange for proper monitoring, control and manipulations that would promote the plant growth and wastewater treatment process.
- Lack of prior knowledge and competent human resources will have detrimental effects on the efficiency of the phytoremediation technique and, hence, CE adoption.
- Complex methods, costs and energy involving the conversion of the harvested plant biomass into other useful beneficial products such as biofuels, bionic liquids and chemicals.
- There is a lack of understanding and legislation that encourages the utilization of reclaimed resources. The incentives or benefits of reusing wastewater resources are not well articulated, which impedes the implementation of the CE model in wastewater treatment for energy recovery [37].
Future Perspective
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authors | Area | CE Strategies | Type of Article | Case Study/ Country |
---|---|---|---|---|
Kakwani and Kalbar [37] | Urban water sector | Review | India | |
Espíndola et al. [31] | Urban rainwater harvesting | Case study/cradle to cradle | Research | Gaudalajara city, Mexico |
Somoza-Tornos et al. [38] | Regenerated water | Performance assessment (CE Model design) | Research | Spain |
Silveira et al. [32] | Swine wastewater | Case study/lifecycle assessment | Research | Minas Gerais, Brazil |
Arias et al. [33] | Wastewater recovery to be reused for in cooling towers | Case study/lifecycle assessment | Research | Spain |
Nika et al. [34] | Complex water systems | Developed circularity assessment framework | Research | Fictional city |
Kaszycki et al. [39] | Wastewater treatment and waste management | Case study: zero waste path in circular bioeconomy | Research | Poland |
Pahunang et al. [40] | Gas emissions from wastewater | Lifecycle assessment | Review | Not mentioned |
Surinkul et al. [35] | Wastewater treatment farming | Surveys, questionnaires and water samplings were taken from farms | Research | Thailand |
Zvimba et al. [14] | Dry waste sludge | Case study: waste to energy | Research | Not mentioned |
Saidan et al. [36] | Reclamation of wastewater | Lifecycle assessment | Research | Jordan |
Jedelhauser and Binder [41] | Phosphorous recovery from dry sewage sludge | Spatial analysis based on a triangulation of methods | Research | Germany |
Ghimire et al. [16] | Wastewater treatment plants | Mini-Review | USA | |
Kurniawan et al. [42] | Phytoremediation of wastewater | CE initiatives | Review | Malaysia |
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Mustafa, H.M.; Hayder, G.; Mustapa, S.I. Circular Economy Framework for Energy Recovery in Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater. Energies 2022, 15, 3075. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093075
Mustafa HM, Hayder G, Mustapa SI. Circular Economy Framework for Energy Recovery in Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater. Energies. 2022; 15(9):3075. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093075
Chicago/Turabian StyleMustafa, Hauwa Mohammed, Gasim Hayder, and Siti Indati Mustapa. 2022. "Circular Economy Framework for Energy Recovery in Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater" Energies 15, no. 9: 3075. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093075