Critical Review of Flywheel Energy Storage System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Pumped hydro storage (PHS);
- Compressed-air energy storage (CAES);
- Battery energy storage (BES);
- Capacitor storage (CS);
- Supercapacitor energy storage (SCES);
- Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES);
- Thermal energy storage (TES);
- Hydrogen storage system (HSS);
- Flywheel energy storage system (FESS).
- Machine;
- Bearing;
- Rotating mass;
- Power electronic interface (PEI).
Merits and Demerits of FESS
- Low speed, less than 10,000 revolutions per minute (rpm);
- High speed, 10,000 to 100,000 rpm.
2. Components of Flywheel Energy Storage System
2.1. Machine
- Permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM)
- Induction Machine (IM)
- ○
- The induction machine shown in Figure 5 should be considered the best all-round choice for high-power installations [73]. They are stoutly constructed, with low build cost, they suit high torque applications, and they are highly reliable [67,74]. They do not suit high-speed applications [75], although double-fed induction machines (DFIM) are in development to overcome this limitation [76,77].
- Brushless direct current machine (BLDCM)
- ○
- A BLDCM as shown in Figure 6 is designed to be a synchronous machine containing a permanent magnet within the rotor and operates a self-controlling function, optimising the stator current by the use of an inverter. High efficiency, large operational speed range, compactness, mechanical stablility, low maintenance, and operation without electromagnetic interference are the main advantages of a brushless direct current machine [78,79,80,81,82,83].
- Switched reluctance machine (SRM)
- ○
- The switched reluctance machine shown in Figure 7 with it’s rotor (7(a)) below has a simplified build, and idle losses are low. They can operate in harsh environments, including at temperatures of 400 °C, still with a wide speed range [84]. Switched reluctance machines similarly are operational even when one or two phases are damaged. An SRM is challenging to control at lower speeds but is easier to control at high speeds than an induction machine [85].
- Homopolar machine (HM)
- ○
- The HM shown in Figure 8 is also known as the homopolar inductor alternator and also the homopolar synchronous machine [86]. The homopolar machine is well built with low idle losses and suits long-term high-speed applications due to its reliability [87]. There is a reduction in the self-discharge rate using this technology, hence increasing efficiency as well as energy density [88]. This, therefore, reduces the overall cost of this technology. This motor utilises a single winding to generate torque in the absence of permanent magnets [89,90]. They are also ideal for industrial blowers, hole pumps, etc. [91]. Current excitation on the stator side for this type of machine is used with a flywheel [92,93]. During the idling period, magnetisation can be eliminated through the turning down of the current, hence reducing self-discharge losses.
- Synchronous Reluctance Machine (SRM)
- ○
- An SRM depicted in Figure 9 is capable of controlling varying torques via two thyristor-controlled components coupled to the stator windings. This allows a dampening effect in the rotating components when used in oscillation mode [95]. Table 4 compares the differences between the switched reluctance machine and synchronous reluctance machine.
2.2. Rotor Bearing
- Permanent (Passive) magnetic bearing (PMB).
- ○
- PMBs are permanent magnets (Figure 10) rather than electromagnetic so therefore are used with other bearing types as they are unable to sufficiently dampen movement on all axes [104]. PMBs offer extremely low losses because of the absence of electromagnetic drag and have low construction and installation costs. They are also used as auxiliary bearings as required [105,106].
- Active magnetic bearing (AMB)
- ○
- Active magnetic bearing (Figure 11) accommodates coils that can adjust the amount of electromagnetic force in the system, thereby reducing vibrations in the rotating mass [108,109]. This is achieved via a feedback system monitoring the shaft position and increasing the stability of the FESS. This suspension and stiffness control increase losses from the power output due to the presence of the control system current. When used in conjunction with mechanical bearings, the complications of the control system can be reduced, making this option more cost-effective, stable, and feasible. However, there is still a need for a complex control system and, therefore, this should not be considered in applications susceptible to electromagnetic interference [110].
- Superconducting magnetic bearing (SMB).
- ○
- SMBs are best for high-speed use, as shown in Figure 12 below. The high speeds generated and the comparatively friction-free environment offer long life and stability. The main disadvantage with SMBs is the need for very low operating temperatures. Cryogenic cooling is needed to keep the bearings from failing. High-temperature superconductors (HTS) are in use with SMBs to combat this system requirement, and there have been recent attempts to incorporate cryogenic isolation for the SMBs to reduce costs and keep the operating temperatures low, but, at the moment, SMBs and PMBs need to be used at the same time [111,112].
- Bearingless machine (BM)
- ○
- A bearingless machine is capable of combining the two independent operations of magnetic suspension and generating torque into a single machine. This approach can be applied to the other types of machine mentioned herein, offering a reduced cost and compact design. BM can be implemented in high-speed FESS [122].
2.3. Containment/Housing
2.4. Power Electronic Interface
3. Current Application of FESS
3.1. Application of Flywheel in the Transport Sector
3.1.1. Rail Transport
- On-board use in diesel–electric vehicles to store braking energy;
- On-board use in DC systems to raise the recuperation rate;
- Stationary use in DC power supply systems to raise the recuperation rate.
3.1.2. Road Transport
3.2. Aircraft Carrier
3.2.1. Incredible Hulk Roller Coaster
3.2.2. Domestic Applications of Flywheels
3.2.3. Flywheel Application in the Space Industry
3.3. Load Levellers
3.4. Emergency Devices
3.5. Low-Energy Applications
3.6. Utility Grid
3.7. Materials
- The flywheel stores kinetic energy E
- 2.
- J = πρR4t/2 axial mass moment of inertia of the disc and ρ is density; therefore,
- 3.
- Energy per unit of mass is the ratio of the last two equations
- 4.
- Poisson’s ratio, v. Stress must not exceed yield strength (σy), factor of safety, S.
- 5.
- v is roughly 1/3 for solids and is treated as a constant
Commercial Use
4. Design
4.1. Rotor Design
4.2. The Flywheel Rotor Design Process
4.3. The Stress Analysis
4.4. The Failure Criteria Selection
4.5. Overview of Flywheel Mounted on a Rotating System
4.5.1. Bearing Load
Shock
Vibrations
Rotating Mass Imbalance
Gyrodynamics
- (i)
- The vehicle turn in-plane, provided that the flywheel is not in its home orientation in relation to the vehicle;
- (ii)
- Vehicle pitch or roll, subject to whether the flywheel energy storage support uses a spring or damper bolted to the car frame;
- (iii)
- Vehicle lateral acceleration, provided that the support uses a pendulum-type spring;
- (iv)
- Torque on the flywheel energy storage emanating from the flywheel energy storage system motor-generator, provided that the stator’s reaction torque vector comes with an element normal to the spin axes of the flywheel;
- (v)
- Torque on the flywheel energy storage systems rotor obtained using bearings, but the beating’s stator reaction torque vectors must be normal to the spin axis.
5. Future Development of FESS
5.1. Application of Flywheel Energy Storage Systems in Renewable Energy Sources
5.2. Application of Flywheel Energy Storage Systems in Military
5.3. Application of Flywheel Energy Storage Systems in Spacecraft
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Advantages | Disadvantages | Ref. |
---|---|---|
|
| [29] |
[47] | ||
[48] | ||
[49] | ||
[50,51] |
LSFESS | HSFESS | ||
---|---|---|---|
Material for disk | Steel | Composite | Ref. |
Electrical machine | Permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM), induction machine | Permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) | [58] |
Bearing | Mechanical | Magnetic | [59] |
Application | Power quality | Traction and aerospace industry | [60] |
Cost | Low | High | [60] |
Characteristics | Flywheel | Battery |
---|---|---|
Cycles | 100,000 to 10 mil | Up to 20,000 (according to the type) |
Energy density (Wh/kg) | 130 | 160 |
Charging/discharging time | 10 s–10 min | Several hours |
Self-discharging time | Few hours | 5–25 months |
Energy conversion | Determined by generator | Chemical process |
Switched Reluctance Machine | Synchronous Reluctance Machine | Ref. | |
Saliency | Double (Stator and Rotor) | Single (Rotor) | [96] |
Sensor | Salient poles (Concentrated coil) | Conventional AC machine | [97] |
Rotor | Salient poles | Arrangement of internal flux guides | [98] |
Winding | Single tooth winding | Poly phase distributed windings | [99,100] |
Excitation | Pulse DC voltage sequence | Balanced sinusoidal currents | [101] |
Waveform | Triangular/Trapezoidal | Sinusoidal | [102] |
Converter | Asymmetric half bridge | Conventional 3-phase inverter | [103] |
Material | Density (kg/m3), ρ | Strength (MPa), σ | Energy Density (MJ/kg) | Cost ($/lb) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Steel (AICI 4340) | 7800 | 1800 | 0.231 | 1 |
Alloy (ALMnMg) | 2700 | 600 | 0.22 | 3 |
Titanium (TiAI6Zr5) | 4500 | 1200 | 0.27 | 9 |
Carbon-fibre composite (S2) | 1920 | 1470 | 0.766 | 24.6 |
Carbon-fibre composite (M30S) | 1553 | 2760 | 1.777 | n/a |
(M30S) 1553 2760 1.777 n/a Carbon-fibre composite (T1000G) | 1664 | 3620 | 2.175 | 101.8 |
Material | kJ/kg | Comments | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Ceramics | 200–2000 | High failure rates so rarely used | [142] |
Composites: CFRP | 200–500 | Most popular, used in a wide range of applications | [142] |
Composites: GFRP | 100–400 | Also widely used. Less range than CFRP but cheaper | [139] |
Beryllium | 300 | High costs and challenging to work with | [140] |
High-Strength Steel | 100–200 | These blends are all equal in strength and applications. Steel and aluminium are less expensive than magnesium and titanium | [141] |
High-Strength Al Alloys | 100–200 | ||
High-Strength Mg Alloys | 100–200 | ||
Ti Alloys | 100–200 | ||
Lead Alloys | 3 | Traditionally used when requiring high density and in low-speed applications | [140] |
Cast Alloys | 8–10 |
Material Property | T300/2500 | Glass/Epoxy | Aluminium Alloy 7075 |
---|---|---|---|
Density (Kg/m3) | 1600 | 1800 | 2800 |
Long-Trans. Poisson’s Ratio | 0.3 | 0.26 | 0.3 |
Longitudinal Young’s Modulus (GPa) | 130 | 38.6 | 72.5 |
Transverse Young’s Modulus (GPa) | 9 | 8.27 | - |
Long Tensile Strength (MPa) | 1800 | 1062 | 590 |
Long Compressive Strength (MPa) | 1400 | 610 | - |
Trans. Tensile Strength (MPa) | 80 | 31 | - |
Trans. Compressive Strength (MPa) | 168 | 118 | - |
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Olabi, A.G.; Wilberforce, T.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Ramadan, M. Critical Review of Flywheel Energy Storage System. Energies 2021, 14, 2159. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082159
Olabi AG, Wilberforce T, Abdelkareem MA, Ramadan M. Critical Review of Flywheel Energy Storage System. Energies. 2021; 14(8):2159. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082159
Chicago/Turabian StyleOlabi, Abdul Ghani, Tabbi Wilberforce, Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem, and Mohamad Ramadan. 2021. "Critical Review of Flywheel Energy Storage System" Energies 14, no. 8: 2159. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082159