Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources in Road Transport in EU Countries—TOPSIS Results
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
- Directive 2014/94/EU on the deployment of the alternative fuels infrastructure;
- Directive 2009/28/EC RED and RED II concerning the use of energy from renewable sources, which imposes an obligation for the share of renewable energy in 2030 in the transport sector to be 10% (RED), while RED II introduces an obligation on all the member countries to have the share of energy from renewable energy sources in 2030 within the range of 2.6% to 10.5%;
- Directive 2009/30/EC on quality of fuels, which requires fuel suppliers to reduce the mean emissions of greenhouse gases from their fuels by 6% in 2020;
- Decision no. 406/2009/EC on the efforts of the member states to reduce their emissions in sectors not covered by the emissions-trading scheme.
3. Materials and Methods
- X1: the share of renewable energy sources in road transport (%) (considered renewable energy sources include blended biodiesels, blended biogasoline, pure biodiesels, biogases, electricity, pure biogasoline, and other liquid biofuels);
- X2: renewable energy sources in road transport per capita (kg of oil equivalent per capita);
- X3: renewable energy sources in road transport per unit GDP (kg of oil equivalent per 1 thousand Euro).
4. Findings and Discussion
4.1. Changes in Energy Consumption in Road Transport
4.2. Ranking of EU Countries in Terms of the Use of Renewable Energy Sources in Road Transport—TOPSIS Results
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Country | Variable | Mean | Median | Minimum | Maximum | Standard Deviation | Coefficient of Variation | Kurtosis | Skewedness |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AT | X1 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 5.2 | 8.3 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.5 |
X2 | 59.8 | 59.2 | 47.4 | 76.0 | 7.4 | 0.1 | 1.4 | 0.8 | |
X3 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 0.2 | 0.1 | −1.1 | 0.0 | |
BE | X1 | 4.1 | 4.3 | 0.0 | 5.8 | 1.8 | 0.4 | 1.6 | −1.4 |
X2 | 30.8 | 32.9 | 0.0 | 43.1 | 13.1 | 0.4 | 1.8 | −1.4 | |
X3 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 1.1 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 2.9 | −1.8 | |
BG | X1 | 3.5 | 4.4 | 0.3 | 5.5 | 2.2 | 0.6 | −1.7 | −0.6 |
X2 | 14.2 | 15.6 | 1.2 | 26.1 | 9.8 | 0.7 | −1.7 | −0.3 | |
X3 | 2.1 | 2.7 | 0.2 | 3.5 | 1.3 | 0.6 | −1.6 | −0.6 | |
HR | X1 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 2.9 | 1.0 | 1.0 | −0.6 | 0.7 |
X2 | 4.6 | 3.8 | 0.1 | 15.4 | 4.7 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 1.0 | |
X3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 1.0 | −0.9 | 0.6 | |
CY | X1 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 1.3 | 2.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | −1.3 | 0.2 |
X2 | 14.7 | 14.8 | 10.0 | 18.9 | 3.9 | 0.3 | −2.3 | 0.0 | |
X3 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.3 | −2.1 | −0.1 | |
CZ | X1 | 4.7 | 5.0 | 1.9 | 5.7 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 3.9 | −2.0 |
X2 | 26.2 | 28.5 | 11.2 | 32.1 | 5.9 | 0.2 | 3.2 | −1.8 | |
X3 | 1.6 | 1.7 | 0.7 | 2.0 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 3.9 | −1.6 | |
DK | X1 | 4.1 | 5.5 | 0.1 | 5.8 | 2.4 | 0.6 | −0.7 | −1.1 |
X2 | 27.9 | 37.3 | 0.9 | 39.8 | 15.9 | 0.6 | −0.7 | −1.1 | |
X3 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.6 | −0.5 | −1.2 | |
EE | X1 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 4.2 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 5.8 | 2.4 |
X2 | 6.6 | 4.1 | 2.6 | 25.7 | 6.8 | 1.0 | 6.0 | 2.4 | |
X3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 3.6 | 1.9 | |
FI | X1 | 7.1 | 5.3 | 1.8 | 12.9 | 3.9 | 0.6 | −1.5 | 0.4 |
X2 | 50.5 | 38.5 | 13.4 | 90.7 | 27.3 | 0.5 | −1.5 | 0.4 | |
X3 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 2.4 | 0.7 | 0.5 | −0.9 | 0.5 | |
FR | X1 | 6.6 | 6.7 | 5.5 | 7.6 | 0.7 | 0.1 | −1.5 | −0.1 |
X2 | 42.3 | 43.0 | 35.9 | 47.7 | 4.3 | 0.1 | −1.6 | −0.2 | |
X3 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 1.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | −0.6 | −0.7 | |
DE | X1 | 5.3 | 5.2 | 4.8 | 5.8 | 0.4 | 0.1 | −1.1 | 0.3 |
X2 | 33.3 | 33.0 | 31.2 | 36.5 | 1.7 | 0.1 | −1.1 | 0.4 | |
X3 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | −1.8 | 0.1 | |
GR | X1 | 2.4 | 2.6 | 1.0 | 3.6 | 0.8 | 0.4 | −0.8 | −0.4 |
X2 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 6.1 | 17.3 | 3.4 | 0.3 | −0.6 | −0.1 | |
X3 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 0.4 | −0.9 | −0.4 | |
HU | X1 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 3.8 | 5.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 1.5 | 0.7 |
X2 | 17.5 | 17.2 | 14.0 | 21.0 | 2.0 | 0.1 | −0.5 | 0.1 | |
X3 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 1.8 | 0.2 | 0.1 | −1.0 | 0.2 | |
IE | X1 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 1.3 | 4.8 | 1.1 | 0.4 | −0.1 | 0.9 |
X2 | 21.4 | 18.8 | 12.5 | 38.8 | 8.9 | 0.4 | −0.3 | 1.0 | |
X3 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0.2 | −1.4 | 0.1 | |
IT | X1 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 1.9 | 4.1 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 3.3 | −1.6 |
X2 | 19.8 | 20.1 | 12.4 | 24.1 | 3.3 | 0.2 | 0.9 | −0.8 | |
X3 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.8 | −0.7 | |
LV | X1 | 2.4 | 2.8 | 0.8 | 3.8 | 1.1 | 0.5 | −1.5 | −0.4 |
X2 | 11.4 | 11.7 | 3.8 | 20.5 | 5.6 | 0.5 | −0.9 | 0.2 | |
X3 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.3 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 0.5 | −0.6 | 0.1 | |
LT | X1 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 3.3 | 4.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | −0.7 | −0.6 |
X2 | 21.3 | 20.4 | 15.3 | 28.2 | 4.2 | 0.2 | −0.8 | 0.3 | |
X3 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | −0.3 | 0.4 | |
LU | X1 | 3.6 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 6.1 | 1.7 | 0.5 | −1.6 | 0.5 |
X2 | 132.5 | 115.7 | 84.3 | 211.5 | 48.5 | 0.4 | −1.3 | 0.6 | |
X3 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 2.0 | 0.4 | 0.3 | −1.4 | 0.6 | |
MT | X1 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 0.0 | 4.7 | 1.8 | 0.7 | −1.7 | −0.3 |
X2 | 10.8 | 13.2 | 0.0 | 22.2 | 8.2 | 0.8 | −1.5 | −0.1 | |
X3 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.7 | −1.5 | −0.5 | |
NL | X1 | 3.4 | 3.0 | 2.1 | 6.5 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 2.9 | 1.7 |
X2 | 21.4 | 19.0 | 13.8 | 39.1 | 7.1 | 0.3 | 3.1 | 1.8 | |
X3 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 1.7 | 1.4 | |
PO | X1 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 2.6 | 5.5 | 1.0 | 0.2 | −0.8 | −0.7 |
X2 | 19.3 | 19.1 | 11.5 | 27.1 | 4.8 | 0.3 | −0.8 | −0.1 | |
X3 | 1.8 | 1.9 | 1.1 | 2.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | −0.9 | −0.2 | |
PT | X1 | 4.6 | 4.9 | 2.0 | 6.1 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 3.5 | −1.6 |
X2 | 24.6 | 25.4 | 11.9 | 31.2 | 4.9 | 0.2 | 3.7 | −1.6 | |
X3 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 1.8 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 1.5 | −1.0 | |
RO | X1 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 2.3 | 6.7 | 1,2 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.4 |
X2 | 11.1 | 10.1 | 5.2 | 21.4 | 4.6 | 0.4 | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
X3 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 | −0.7 | |
SK | X1 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 3.6 | 7.3 | 1.2 | 0.2 | −1.2 | 0.0 |
X2 | 22.1 | 21.9 | 13.8 | 29.2 | 5.7 | 0.3 | −1.9 | −0.1 | |
X3 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 0.3 | 0.2 | −1.6 | −0.2 | |
SI | X1 | 2.4 | 2.2 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.9 |
X2 | 21.7 | 19.6 | 8.9 | 45.8 | 10.9 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 1.1 | |
X3 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 2.0 | 0.5 | 0.4 | −1.0 | 0.3 | |
ES | X1 | 4.7 | 4.3 | 1.9 | 8.2 | 1.6 | 0.3 | 1.1 | 0.7 |
X2 | 27.9 | 25.9 | 13.7 | 44.6 | 9.0 | 0.3 | −0.6 | 0.3 | |
X3 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 2.0 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.8 | |
SE | X1 | 12.1 | 10.5 | 4.7 | 22.6 | 6.8 | 0.6 | −1.4 | 0.5 |
X2 | 82.1 | 71.7 | 35.5 | 146.5 | 42.4 | 0.5 | −1.5 | 0.4 | |
X3 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 3.1 | 0.8 | 0.5 | −1.4 | 0.5 | |
GB | X1 | 2.8 | 2.7 | 2.0 | 4.4 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 3.3 | 1.5 |
X2 | 16.7 | 16.0 | 13.0 | 25.3 | 3.3 | 0.2 | 3.2 | 1.6 | |
X3 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.2 | −1.0 | 0.3 |
Country | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AT | 0.57 | 0.75 | 0.71 | 0.66 | 0.63 | 0.57 | 0.54 | 0.52 | 0.41 | 0.30 | 0.25 | 0.22 |
BE | 0.00 | 0.16 | 0.42 | 0.37 | 0.33 | 0.29 | 0.28 | 0.15 | 0.27 | 0.25 | 0.19 | 0.17 |
BG | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.32 | 0.37 | 0.41 | 0.35 | 0.25 | 0.24 |
HR | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
CY | 0.24 | 0.26 | 0.24 | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.00 |
CZ | 0.19 | 0.33 | 0.37 | 0.43 | 0.36 | 0.34 | 0.32 | 0.28 | 0.28 | 0.24 | 0.16 | 0.16 |
DK | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.26 | 0.38 | 0.35 | 0.28 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.16 |
EE | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.11 |
FI | 0.17 | 0.32 | 0.32 | 0.41 | 0.37 | 0.39 | 0.74 | 0.66 | 0.22 | 0.42 | 0.34 | 0.38 |
FR | 0.47 | 0.51 | 0.49 | 0.45 | 0.46 | 0.41 | 0.36 | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.30 | 0.24 | 0.22 |
DE | 0.47 | 0.44 | 0.46 | 0.41 | 0.40 | 0.32 | 0.26 | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 0.15 | 0.12 |
GR | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.07 | 0.08 |
HU | 0.34 | 0.37 | 0.37 | 0.32 | 0.27 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.12 |
IE | 0.15 | 0.21 | 0.24 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.18 | 0.12 | 0.14 |
IT | 0.18 | 0.28 | 0.32 | 0.29 | 0.25 | 0.20 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.07 |
LV | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.35 | 0.27 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.10 |
LT | 0.40 | 0.39 | 0.34 | 0.30 | 0.32 | 0.28 | 0.24 | 0.26 | 0.23 | 0.23 | 0.17 | 0.13 |
LU | 0.78 | 0.76 | 0.73 | 0.75 | 0.75 | 0.74 | 0.71 | 0.71 | 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.65 | 0.68 |
MT | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.09 |
NL | 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.17 | 0.22 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.17 |
PO | 0.27 | 0.39 | 0.46 | 0.44 | 0.36 | 0.31 | 0.24 | 0.21 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.17 |
PT | 0.20 | 0.32 | 0.45 | 0.40 | 0.35 | 0.30 | 0.24 | 0.30 | 0.25 | 0.20 | 0.14 | 0.12 |
RO | 0.18 | 0.27 | 0.19 | 0.28 | 0.23 | 0.22 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.22 | 0.14 | 0.18 |
SK | 0.29 | 0.33 | 0.34 | 0.31 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.31 | 0.26 | 0.19 | 0.18 |
SI | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.33 | 0.24 | 0.30 | 0.33 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.18 | 0.22 |
ES | 0.19 | 0.34 | 0.43 | 0.48 | 0.55 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.16 |
SE | 0.44 | 0.47 | 0.47 | 0.53 | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.66 | 0.75 | 0.78 | 0.78 | 0.71 |
GB | 0.18 | 0.22 | 0.24 | 0.20 | 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.09 |
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Categories of Costs | Components of Costs | Share in Total Externalities (%) |
---|---|---|
Environmental costs |
| 58 |
Costs of accidents |
| 29 |
Costs of infrastructure |
| 12 |
Costs of traffic congestion |
| 1 |
Country | Mean Value of the Index for 12 Years | Changes in Value of the Index | Country | Mean Value of the Index for 12 Years | Changes in Value of the Index |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LU | 0.72 | −0.10 | BG | 0.24 | 0.20 |
SE | 0.62 | 0.27 | DK | 0.20 | 0.15 |
AT | 0.51 | −0.35 | RO | 0.20 | 0.00 |
FI | 0.40 | 0.21 | SI | 0.20 | 0.04 |
FR | 0.38 | −0.25 | IT | 0.18 | −0.10 |
DE | 0.31 | −0.35 | NL | 0.17 | −0.06 |
CZ | 0.29 | −0.03 | LV | 0.15 | 0.02 |
LT | 0.28 | −0.27 | IE | 0.14 | −0.01 |
PO | 0.28 | −0.10 | GB | 0.14 | −0.09 |
SK | 0.28 | −0.11 | CY | 0.13 | −0.24 |
PT | 0.27 | −0.07 | GR | 0.11 | −0.02 |
ES | 0.27 | −0.03 | MT | 0.08 | 0.09 |
HU | 0.25 | −0.22 | EE | 0.05 | 0.05 |
BE | 0.24 | 0.17 | HR | 0.04 | 0.06 |
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Kisielińska, J.; Roman, M.; Pietrzak, P.; Roman, M.; Łukasiewicz, K.; Kacperska, E. Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources in Road Transport in EU Countries—TOPSIS Results. Energies 2021, 14, 7457. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227457
Kisielińska J, Roman M, Pietrzak P, Roman M, Łukasiewicz K, Kacperska E. Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources in Road Transport in EU Countries—TOPSIS Results. Energies. 2021; 14(22):7457. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227457
Chicago/Turabian StyleKisielińska, Joanna, Monika Roman, Piotr Pietrzak, Michał Roman, Katarzyna Łukasiewicz, and Elżbieta Kacperska. 2021. "Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources in Road Transport in EU Countries—TOPSIS Results" Energies 14, no. 22: 7457. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227457