Remote Microgrids for Energy Access in Indonesia—Part I: Scaling and Sustainability Challenges and A Technology Outlook
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Approach
2.1. Data Collection
2.2. Energy Access Assessment
2.3. Formulation of Framework
- Operation and development phases (in which phase they occur)
- Energy access attributes (which attribute they affect)
2.4. Technology Outlook
3. Energy Access in Remote Area
3.1. Electricity Access in Eastern Indonesia: Case of Maluku and North Maluku
3.2. Improving Energy Access with Renewable Resources
- Continuity of fuel supply, which might result in limited availability of electricity.
- The requirement of regular maintenance and parts replacement, which could be difficult due to the long travel distance to the site.
- High electricity generation costs due to fuel and transportation costs.
- Environmental issues due to emissions, noise, and smell.
3.3. Scaling and Sustainability Challenges
4. Framework for Assessment of Energy Access
4.1. Planning
4.2. Design and Implementation
4.3. Operation and Maintenance
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Maluku | North Maluku | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No | Regency/Municipality | 2020 * | Area (PLN) | No | Regency/Municipality | 2020 * | Area (PLN) |
1 | Maluku Tenggara Barat | 23,901 | Saumlaki | 1 | Halmahera Barat | 19,024 | Sofifi |
2 | Maluku Tenggara | 32,547 | Tual | 2 | Halmahera Tengah | 55,403 | Sofifi |
3 | Maluku Tengah | 23,303 | Ambon, Masohi | 3 | Sula Islands | 23,964 | Ternate |
4 | Buru | 16,419 | Ambon | 4 | Halmahera Selatan | 36,438 | Sofifi, Ternate |
5 | Kepulauan Aru | 36,051 | Tual | 5 | Halmahera Utara | 29,005 | Tobelo |
6 | Seram Bagian Barat | 17,623 | Ambon, Masohi | 6 | Halmahera Timur | 36,605 | Sofifi |
7 | Seram Bagian Timur | 25,075 | Masohi | 7 | Morotai Island | 2304 | Tobelo |
8 | Maluku Barat Daya | 2276 | Saumlaki | 8 | Taliabu Island | 27,917 | Ternate |
9 | Buru Selatan | 22,104 | Ambon | 9 | Ternate | 44,287 | Ternate |
10 | Ambon | 29,682 | Ambon | 10 | Tidore Islands | 29,083 | Sofifi |
11 | Tual | 32,095 | Tual | ||||
Total of Reg./Mun. | 2558 | Total of Reg./Mun. | 33,284 | ||||
Province | 25,255 | Province | 32,955 |
No | Unit | Consumption in a Year (kWh) | Number of Customers | Avg. Consumption Per Day (Wh/Day) |
---|---|---|---|---|
R1: 900–2200 VA | ||||
1 | Ambon | 221,464,531 | 181,336 | 3346 |
2 | Masohi | 86,594,525 | 92,127 | 2575 |
3 | Ternate | 171,483,183 | 123,920 | 3791 |
4 | Sofifi | 73,410,625 | 74,530 | 2699 |
5 | Tual | 52,735,515 | 43,364 | 3332 |
6 | Tobelo | 58,886,518 | 58,279 | 2768 |
7 | Saumlaki | 28,563,816 | 34,038 | 2299 |
R2: 3500–5500 VA | ||||
1 | Ambon | 12,266,222 | 2825 | 11,896 |
2 | Masohi | 1,849,961 | 507 | 9997 |
3 | Ternate | 12,223,466 | 2599 | 12,885 |
4 | Sofifi | 1,876,204 | 932 | 5515 |
5 | Tual | 3,044,693 | 738 | 11,303 |
6 | Tobelo | 2,487,704 | 804 | 8477 |
7 | Saumlaki | 1,585,478 | 718 | 6050 |
R3: ≥6600 VA | ||||
1 | Ambon | 8,571,497 | 481 | 48,822 |
2 | Masohi | 826,950 | 46 | 49,253 |
3 | Ternate | 3,328,643 | 257 | 35,485 |
4 | Sofifi | 986,646 | 73 | 37,029 |
5 | Tual | 893,318 | 62 | 39,475 |
6 | Tobelo | 754,518 | 78 | 26,502 |
7 | Saumlaki | 555,398 | 45 | 33,814 |
No | System | Availability (Hours) | Installed Capacity (MW) | Peak Load (MW) | No | System | Availability (Hours) | Installed Capacity (MW) | Peak Load (MW) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Amb1 | 24 | 0.89 | 0.56 | 47 | Sau3 | 12 | 0.2 | 0.04 |
2 | Amb2 | 12 | 0.63 | 0.43 | 48 | Sau4 | 12 | 1.25 | 0.39 |
3 | Amb3 | 12 | 0.65 | 0.18 | 49 | Sau5 | 24 | 7.6 | 3.99 |
4 | Amb4 | 24 | 2.15 | 1.35 | 50 | Sau6 | 12 | 2 | 0.57 |
5 | Amb5 | 12 | 1.67 | 0.93 | 51 | Sau7 | 12 | 1.45 | 0.72 |
6 | Amb6 | 12 | 0.77 | 0.31 | 52 | Sau8 | 12 | 1.18 | 0.23 |
7 | Amb7 | 12 | 0.2 | 0.19 | 53 | Sau9 | 12 | 1.1 | 0.3 |
8 | Amb8 | 12 | 1 | 0.31 | 54 | Sau10 | 12 | 0.79 | 0.21 |
9 | Amb9 | 12 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 55 | Sau11 | 12 | 1.3 | 0.48 |
10 | Amb10 | 12 | 0.14 | 0.08 | 56 | Sau12 | 24 | 2.5 | 1.27 |
11 | Amb11 | 12 | 0.1 | 0.05 | 57 | Sau13 | 24 | 2.31 | 0.76 |
12 | Amb12 | 12 | 0.19 | 0.14 | 58 | Sof1 | 24 | 0.55 | 0.22 |
13 | Amb13 | 12 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 59 | Sof2 | 24 | 0.91 | 0 |
14 | Amb14 | 24 | 2.2 | 1 | 60 | Sof3 | 24 | 0.65 | 0.33 |
15 | Amb15 | 24 | 1.34 | 0.26 | 61 | Sof4 | 24 | 1.89 | 0.77 |
16 | Amb16 | 6 | 0.14 | 0.11 | 62 | Sof5 | 12 | 0.7 | 0.09 |
17 | Amb17 | 12 | 2.83 | 1.21 | 63 | Sof6 | 12 | 0 | 0 |
18 | Amb18 | 24 | 4.31 | 1.52 | 64 | Sof7 | 24 | 1.45 | 0.4 |
19 | Amb19 | 24 | 5.33 | 2.74 | 65 | Sof8 | 24 | 3.05 | 1.37 |
20 | Amb20 | 24 | 166.51 | 56.36 | 66 | Sof9 | 24 | 3.1 | 1.2 |
21 | Amb21 | 24 | 7.06 | 1.21 | 67 | Sof10 | 24 | 7.78 | 4.33 |
22 | Amb22 | 24 | 1.5 | 0.56 | 68 | Sof11 | 24 | 4 | 2.05 |
23 | Amb23 | 24 | 12.48 | 4.99 | 69 | Sof12 | 24 | 6.8 | 6.06 |
24 | Mas1 | 24 | 1.68 | 0.48 | 70 | Sof13 | 24 | 3.05 | 0 |
25 | Mas2 | 12 | 1.87 | 0.53 | 71 | Sof14 | 24 | 6.5 | 3.78 |
26 | Mas3 | 12 | 0.52 | 0.24 | 72 | Sof15 | 24 | 0.48 | 0.28 |
27 | Mas4 | 12 | 2.14 | 0.63 | 73 | Ter1 | 12 | 0.12 | 0.02 |
28 | Mas5 | 24 | 0.61 | 0.15 | 74 | Ter2 | 12 | 0.32 | 0.11 |
29 | Mas6 | 12 | 0.36 | 0.16 | 75 | Ter3 | 24 | 15.05 | 4.85 |
30 | Mas7 | 12 | 1.14 | 0.57 | 76 | Ter4 | 24 | 5.75 | 3.62 |
31 | Mas8 | 24 | 2.26 | 0 | 77 | Ter5 | 12 | 2.29 | 0.61 |
32 | Mas9 | 24 | 1.87 | 0.72 | 78 | Ter6 | 24 | 0.3 | 0.14 |
33 | Mas10 | 12 | 2.03 | 0.74 | 79 | Ter7 | 24 | 0.85 | 0.21 |
34 | Mas11 | 12 | 0.35 | 0.2 | 80 | Ter8 | 24 | 1.7 | 0.58 |
35 | Mas12 | 12 | 0.72 | 0.24 | 81 | Ter9 | 12 | 1.2 | 0.46 |
36 | Mas13 | 12 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 82 | Ter10 | 12 | 2.4 | 1.08 |
37 | Mas14 | 12 | 0.4 | 0.23 | 83 | Ter11 | 12 | 0.81 | 0.37 |
38 | Mas15 | 12 | 0.1 | 0.01 | 84 | Ter12 | 12 | 1.47 | 0.74 |
39 | Mas16 | 6 | 0.1 | 0 | 85 | Ter13 | 24 | 6.4 | 1.35 |
40 | Mas17 | 24 | 8.46 | 3.36 | 86 | Ter14 | 12 | 0.8 | 0.27 |
41 | Mas18 | 24 | 7.7 | 2.74 | 87 | Ter15 | 12 | 1.49 | 0.75 |
42 | Mas19 | 24 | 24.32 | 7.27 | 88 | Ter16 | 24 | 64.24 | 38.02 |
43 | Mas20 | 24 | 3.92 | 1.68 | 89 | Tob1 | 12 | 0.6 | 0.36 |
44 | Mas21 | 24 | 7.2 | 2.8 | 90 | Tob2 | 12 | 0.5 | 0.35 |
45 | Sau1 | 12 | 1 | 0.1 | 91 | Tob3 | 12 | 0.15 | 0.02 |
46 | Sau2 | 12 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 92 | Tob4 | 12 | 0.15 | 0.05 |
93 | Tob5 | 12 | 0.23 | 0.05 | 99 | Tob11 | 24 | 28.18 | 12.3 |
94 | Tob6 | 12 | 0.25 | 0.13 | 100 | Tu1 | 24 | 14.12 | 5.25 |
95 | Tob7 | 12 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 101 | Tu2 | 24 | 42.52 | 10.5 |
96 | Tob8 | 12 | 0.5 | 0.17 | 102 | Tu3 | 24 | 4.57 | 1.03 |
97 | Tob9 | 24 | 7.7 | 3.75 | 103 | Tu4 | 12 | 0.78 | 0.07 |
98 | Tob10 | 12 | 2.45 | 0.72 | 104 | Tu5 | 12 | 0.52 | 0.18 |
No | PLN Service Unit | Number of Disruptions | Number of Feeders with Disruption Longer than 2 h | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Total | |||
1 | Amb1 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 23 | 44 | 1 |
2 | Amb2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
3 | Amb3 | 12 | 13 | 16 | 14 | 20 | 75 | 7 |
4 | Amb4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
5 | Amb5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | |
6 | Amb6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
7 | Amb7 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | |
8 | Amb8 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 7 | |
9 | Amb9 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |
10 | Amb10 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 9 | |
11 | Amb11 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
12 | Ter1 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 2 | 19 | |
13 | Ter2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | |
14 | Ter3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | |
15 | Ter4 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 9 | |
16 | Ter5 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 8 | |
17 | Ter6 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 | |
18 | Ter7 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 | |
19 | Ter8 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | |
20 | Tua1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
21 | Tua2 | 4 | 4 | 10 | 5 | 1 | 24 | |
22 | Tua3 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 8 | |
23 | Mas1 | 7 | 2 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 25 | 1 |
24 | Mas2 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | |
25 | Mas3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 18 | |
26 | Mas4 | 7 | 6 | 9 | 8 | 2 | 32 | |
27 | Mas5 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | |
28 | Sof1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 | |
29 | Sof2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 17 | |
30 | Sof3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
31 | Sof4 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 1 | 2 | 20 | |
32 | Tob1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 20 | |
33 | Tob2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | |
34 | Sau1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 12 | |
35 | Sau2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
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Tier 0 | Tier 1 | Tier 2 | Tier 3 | Tier 4 | Tier 5 | Remarks | Available Data | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Capacity | 12 | 200 | 1000 | 3400 | 8200 | Min. value in Wh/day | Customer avg. (throughout 2020) | |
Availability | 4 | 4 | 7 | 16 | 23 | Min. h/day | District avg. (May 2021) | |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 4 | Min. evening hours | |||
Reliability | 14 | 3 with duration < 2 h | Max. disruptions/week | Per feeder (Jan–May 2021) | ||||
Quality | Voltage within ±10% | - | Per feeder (Jan–Jun 2021) | |||||
Affordability | 1-year electricity cost < 5% of household income | - | Regency avg. (Average of 2020) |
Designator | Year of Operation | Operational | System Condition | Possible Cause of Failure |
---|---|---|---|---|
Site 1 | 4 | No | PV is significantly degraded, battery and inverter are out of service. | Demand doubled in 3 years. Undersized battery and no diesel backup resulted in a high depth of discharge (DoD). Battery removed without updating inverter setting. High battery temperature room. |
Site 2 | 8 | No | PV is significantly degraded and cracked. Inverter out of service due to burnt IGBT. Improper installation was found. Monitoring and communication device are out of service. Traces of animals were found inside electrical panels. | Needs further investigation. |
Site 3 | 3 | No | PV is degraded, battery and inverter are out of service. Uncovered cable trays. Trace of rodents’ bite on the cable insulation. Uncontrolled vegetation. | Significant load growth, broken battery, and issues in the control system. |
Site 4 | 8 | Yes | PV and inverter are in normal condition. Battery is degraded. | - |
Site 5 | 5 | No | PV is significantly degraded, battery and inverter are out of service. | Undersized battery and no diesel backup resulted in a high DoD. Battery removed without updating inverter setting. High battery temperature room. |
Site 6 | 5 | No | PV is significantly degraded, battery and inverter are out of service. | Poor array construction, MPPT failure, high battery DoD, and no diesel back-up. Battery removed without updating inverter setting. High battery temperature room. |
Site 7 | 3 | No | PV significantly degraded, cracked, rusted, and accumulated dirt on the frame was found. The inverter cannot be operated and keep restarting. | Suspected as improper inverter commissioning. Battery removed without updating inverter setting. |
Site 8 | 4 | No | PV is significantly degraded, cracked, and broken. Inverter out of service. Uncontrolled vegetation and rusted electrical panels. | Undersized PV string cable. Fire in a combiner box was suspected due to improper installation. This resulted in insufficient battery recharge and eventually degrade the battery. |
Site 9 | 3 | No | Some PV is broken. Inverter and battery are in good condition. | Needs further investigation. |
Site 10 | 3 | No | Only 60% PV output. Inverter and battery are out of service. | Improper cable sizing resulted in a fire. High battery DoD and no diesel back-up. |
Site 11 | 2 | No | PV significantly degraded, battery and inverter are out of service. | Needs further investigation. |
Site 12 | 3 | No | PV is in good condition but partially covered by vegetation. Vegetation also growing on the inside of the inverter. Battery out of service. Rusted electrical panels. There is a huge opening below electrical panels at the incoming cable, which could be easily penetrated by animals. | Needs further investigation. |
Site 13 | 6 | No | Accumulated soiling and crack were found on PV panels. Inverter is out of service. The grounding cable is broken. Traces of animals inside electrical panels. | Needs further investigation. |
Site 14 | 2 | No | PV string voltage is normal. Vegetation growing on the inside of the inverter. Battery is out of service. Uncontrolled vegetation. Rusted electrical panels. Traces of animals and insects inside the powerhouse. | The operator needs to switch between PV and diesel manually. Due to the difficult and manual operation, the system is no longer operational. |
Site 15 | 5 | Yes | PV and inverter are in normal condition. | - |
No. | Potential Challenges | Possible Impacts | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Institutional | |||
In1 | Misalignment between central and local institutions | Development does not reflect users’ needs, lack of local participation, contradicting development plan, abandonment of off-grid PV or off-grid PV hybrids. | [22,23,24,25] |
In2 | Unclear responsibility allocation | Overlapping tasks between stakeholders, lack of coordination, communities do not assume ownership and responsibility. These lead to a limited budget for O&M, replacement, and other variable expenses. | [10,21,22,23,24] |
In3 | Unstable and weak enforcement of formal authority | Difficulties in conducting warranty claims, not binding penalties, unrealized incentives, connections over regulations. | [10,23,24] |
Social | |||
So1 | Lack of social engagement and technology awareness | Low social acceptance, insecurity (vandalism/theft), wasteful energy consumption. | [21,22,23,24,25] |
So2 | Unclear land status | Disputes, insufficient area, incompatible land-use, difficult permit. | [22] |
Technical | |||
Te1 | Lack of practical and technical knowledge and inadequate preliminary survey | Incorrect load characterization, incorrect equipment sizing, high system losses, shorter system lifetime. High mismatch of supply/demand resulting in curtailment or energy deficit. | [9,21,24] |
Te2 | Lack of local skilled personnel or expert know-how | Use of uncertified or low-quality materials, incorrect use of components, poor quality assurance and implementation. Extra cost for foreign technical experts. | [10,11,21,22,23,24] |
Te3 | Lack of O&M standards | Incorrect or inefficient O&M practices, lack of measurement tools for troubleshooting, longer time required for corrective maintenance, shorter component lifetime. | [10,21,22,23,24] |
Te4 | Power quality issues | Increasing losses, false trips, equipment communication error. | PLN MMU investigation report |
Economic | |||
Ec1 | Lack of financial framework | Lack of attractive business models, uncertain investment. | [17,21,24] |
Ec2 | High initial investment and replacement costs, lack of financial support | High electricity production costs; this leads to an unattractive return since the tariff is regulated and most likely to be lower than the production cost. | [17,21,22,23,24,25] |
Ec3 | Lack of productive energy use of energy | Electricity does not increase the users’ income, lack of revenue generation due to low demand. | [17,21,27] |
Environmental | |||
En1 | Incomplete resource assessment | Selection of less optimal resources. | [21] |
En2 | Low environmental awareness | Inappropriate disposal practices, underestimated environmental costs. | [17,21,22,24] |
En3 | Uncontrolled vegetation, rodent, bug, and lizard problems | Increase the risk of failure and requirement of tight sealing for equipment, ducts, and cable trays. | PLN MMU investigation report |
En4 | Suitability of components to the relatively humid and high-temperature environment | Increase equipment degradation rate if not properly conditioned. | [10], PLN MMU investigation report |
En5 | Land availability, land-use change, and land clearing | Risks of altering and reducing arable land, disturbing the ecosystems in conservation areas. | [22] |
Policy | |||
Po1 | Insufficient political will | Insufficient presence of microgrids in energy planning, limited development budget, ineffective policy initiatives, and ineffective quality control. | [17,21,23] |
Po2 | Changing regulations and standards | The regulations do not support target, lack of clear standards (reduce quality, increase cost). | [21,22,23,24] |
Po3 | Ineffective frameworks for stimulating private sector | Unattractive investment return, which leads to few interested participants. | [17,21] |
No | Planning | Design and Implementation | Operation and Maintenance | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prospecting and Site Selection | Resource Assessment | Demand Projection | Financial Modeling | Environment Impact Assessment | Technical Design and Technology Selection | Pre-Installation | Installation and Commissioning | Monitoring and Evaluation | Scheduled or Preventive | Unscheduled | |
In1 | CA, RQ | CA | |||||||||
In2 | Ad | RQ | RQ | RQ | |||||||
In3 | Ad | RQ | RQ | ||||||||
So1 | CA | Au | |||||||||
So2 | CA | Ad | |||||||||
Te1 | CA | CA, Ad | CA, RQ | RQ | RQ | ||||||
Te2 | RQ, Ad | RQ | RQ | RQ | RQ | RQ, Ad | |||||
Te3 | RQ | RQ | RQ, Ad | ||||||||
Te4 | RQ, Ad | RQ | |||||||||
Ec1 | CA, Ad | ||||||||||
Ec2 | CA, Ad | ||||||||||
Ec3 | Au | ||||||||||
En1 | Ad | ||||||||||
En2 | Ad | ||||||||||
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Sulaeman, I.; Simatupang, D.P.; Noya, B.K.; Suryani, A.; Moonen, N.; Popovic, J.; Leferink, F. Remote Microgrids for Energy Access in Indonesia—Part I: Scaling and Sustainability Challenges and A Technology Outlook. Energies 2021, 14, 6643. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206643
Sulaeman I, Simatupang DP, Noya BK, Suryani A, Moonen N, Popovic J, Leferink F. Remote Microgrids for Energy Access in Indonesia—Part I: Scaling and Sustainability Challenges and A Technology Outlook. Energies. 2021; 14(20):6643. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206643
Chicago/Turabian StyleSulaeman, Ilman, Desmon Petrus Simatupang, Brandon Kristiano Noya, Amalia Suryani, Niek Moonen, Jelena Popovic, and Frank Leferink. 2021. "Remote Microgrids for Energy Access in Indonesia—Part I: Scaling and Sustainability Challenges and A Technology Outlook" Energies 14, no. 20: 6643. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206643
APA StyleSulaeman, I., Simatupang, D. P., Noya, B. K., Suryani, A., Moonen, N., Popovic, J., & Leferink, F. (2021). Remote Microgrids for Energy Access in Indonesia—Part I: Scaling and Sustainability Challenges and A Technology Outlook. Energies, 14(20), 6643. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206643