Stand-Alone Direct Current Power Network Based on Photovoltaics and Lithium-Ion Batteries for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Water-Energy-Climate Nexus for Sustainability
2.1. Water for Energy
2.2. Energy for Water
2.3. Role of Carbon Emissions towards Sustainability Nexus
3. Green Sustainable Electric Power Generation and Storage
4. Fundamental Issues of Existing Power Grid
4.1. Modifying the Baseload Power Design
4.2. Eliminate Conversion Losses with PV-DC System Design
5. End-to-End Direct Current Power Network for Desalination Plant
5.1. Situational Intelligence in End-to-End DC Power Network
5.2. Cyber-Security in Decentralized DC Grid
6. Stand-Alone DC System for RO Desalination
6.1. Power Networks
6.2. Geographical Considerations
6.3. PV Irradiation Profile
6.3.1. Temperature Compensation Calculations
6.3.2. Optimum Tilt Calculations
6.3.3. Sizing Considerations
6.3.4. Battery Storage Profile and System Results
7. Financial Analysis
- According to a December 2019 article [59], the cost of a DC power PV system has dropped to as low as USD 0.7 per watt. In future, the cost will be lower. To be conservative, we have used a PV system cost of $0.7 per watt.
- In conventional HVDC, the conversion cost of AC to DC and DC to AC stations is quite high. In our case, there is no such conversion cost and HVDC cost will be much lower than for existing AC infrastructures. However, we have used the $250,000/km cost of HVDC for AC infrastructure [60] in our calculations. In practice, the distance will be lower than 10 km. For HVDC, the cost of $2.5 million is used in our calculations.
- At utility scale, battery cost is given for 4 h. However, in our case 16–18 h of battery storage will be used. Due to higher volume, the cost will be much lower than the 4 h case. We have used Department of Energy data to extrapolate the cost for our case. These details are given in Appendix B and the cost in 2021 is $226/kWh. Based on the accelerated growth of electrification of transportation, and the progress of solid-state batteries [61], it is obvious that the cost will be lower than $226/kWh. We have studied the impact of battery cost variation from $100–$246/kWh.
- The typical life of lithium batteries is 15 years. After 15 years, older batteries will be replaced by new batteries. Lithium batteries are following the cost reduction trend of PV [62]. We expect after 15 years the cost to be $50/kWh.
- We have assumed equity of 25% and the debt of 75% and studied the rate variation from 3–8% for 10 years.
- We have used reference [63] to calculate interest on debt and Appendix C illustrates the detailed calculation formulas.
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- The PV farm is appropriately sized to meet the power requirements on worst cloudy days. The minimum daily irradiance is calculated from the past 10 years’ irradiance data as 3.95 kWh/m2. The mean and maximum value of irradiance at the site location are 6.15 kWh/m2 and 7.67 kWh/m2, respectively. It is important to note that these irradiation values are calculated from optimum tilt and temperature correction.
- The PV farm area is calculated to be 1,040,724 m2. Additional area for co-located battery storage is assumed to be 25,000 m2 resulting in the total land area of 1,065,724 m2 for the complete PV farm.
- The PV farm is sized at 230 MW and the lithium-ion battery storage is sized at 810 MWh.
- The PV farm is assumed to incorporate silicon PV panels of 22.2% efficiency. The optimum panel fixed tilt is set for every four months as 55°, 14°, and 55°, respectively.
- The lithium-ion battery is operated between SOCmax = 95% and SOCmin = 20% of battery capacity to ensure longer lifetime. The battery is adequately sized to ensure one charge-discharge cycle every day. This reduces battery sitting loss and charge degradation due to idle hours of operation. The SOC at every hour is maintained well above depth of discharge (DoD) of 20% of battery capacity. An assumed 6000 lifetime cycles will ensure approximately 15 years of operation before replacement.
Appendix B
- Due to DC architecture the cost of a central inverter has been neglected. For certain high-pressure pumps local inverter cost of 0.06 $/kWh can be used.
- The structural balance of system (BOS), electrical balance of system (EOS), labor and installation costs, Engineering and Procurement Cost (EPC), sales tax and developer costs are all assumed unchanged from the NREL 2018 data [68]. It is highly likely that these costs have reduced further in 2021 due to advances in battery technology. However, we have assumed these unchanged costs to consider the worst-case scenario. Actual BESS cost will be even lower that these values.
- As seen for 16-h storage, the cost is $226/kWh for a 60 MW system. Since our system is sized for 32 MW this cost can further be decreased.
Appendix C
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Claude Bud Lewis Carlsbad | Detailed Specifications | |
---|---|---|
Desalination Plant | ||
Location and co-ordinates | 33.14° N, 117.33° W | |
Plant capacity | 50–60 MGD/d | |
Daily energy requirement | 675–768 MWh/d | |
Hourly fixed load | 30–35 MWh/h (average: 32 MWh/h) | |
Brine disposal | 50–60 MGD/d | |
Reverse osmosis (RO) | 2000 + pressure vessels with 16,000 RO membranes | |
Energy recovery system | 144 + pressure exchangers recover 33% of power | |
Energy consumption at every stage of desalination (with high efficiency motors) | Intake | =4.168 MW |
Pre-filtration | =1.097 MW | |
Reverse osmosis | =22.45 MW | |
Energy recovery | =−7.61 MW | |
Storage and distribution | =6.975 MW | |
Miscellaneous (HVAC, lighting, chemical feed) | =1 MW | |
Total hourly power = 28.085 MW |
Amortized Annual Rate of Interest | Battery Storage Costs ($/kWh) (15–18 h) | Total System Costs ($/kWh) for 30-Year Lifetime |
---|---|---|
Rate = 3% | 100 | 0.03792 |
150 | 0.04331 | |
200 | 0.0487 | |
226 | 0.05251 | |
246 | 0.05366 | |
Rate = 5% | 100 | 0.04082 |
150 | 0.04662 | |
200 | 0.05243 | |
226 | 0.05544 | |
246 | 0.05776 | |
Rate = 8% | 100 | 0.04548 |
150 | 0.05194 | |
200 | 0.0584 | |
226 | 0.06176 | |
246 | 0.06435 |
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Powar, V.; Singh, R. Stand-Alone Direct Current Power Network Based on Photovoltaics and Lithium-Ion Batteries for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant. Energies 2021, 14, 2772. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102772
Powar V, Singh R. Stand-Alone Direct Current Power Network Based on Photovoltaics and Lithium-Ion Batteries for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant. Energies. 2021; 14(10):2772. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102772
Chicago/Turabian StylePowar, Vishwas, and Rajendra Singh. 2021. "Stand-Alone Direct Current Power Network Based on Photovoltaics and Lithium-Ion Batteries for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant" Energies 14, no. 10: 2772. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102772
APA StylePowar, V., & Singh, R. (2021). Stand-Alone Direct Current Power Network Based on Photovoltaics and Lithium-Ion Batteries for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant. Energies, 14(10), 2772. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102772