Alternative Ways of Cooling a Passive School Building in Order to Maintain Thermal Comfort in Summer
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Object and Methodology
2.1. Passive School Building in Budzów
2.2. The Criterion for Ensuring Thermal Comfort
−0.42 × [(M − W) − 58.15] − 1.7 × 10−5 × M × (5867 − pa) − 0.0014 × M × (34 − ta)
−3.96 × 10−8 × fcl × [(tcl + 273)4 − (t-r + 273)4] − fcl × hc × (tcl − ta))
tcl = 35.7 − 0.028 × (M − W) − Icl{3.96 × 10−8 × fcl × [(tcl + 273)4 − (t-r + 273)4] + fcl × hc × (tcl − ta)}
2.3. Simulation Model in Design Builder Program
3. Results of Thermal Comfort Analysis
3.1. Experimental Analysis
3.2. Simulation Variants and Results
- ▪
- Variant 1—Reference model. This building functions just as at the time of taking measurements; i.e., mechanical ventilation works with an efficiency of 100% (which in relation to the cubic capacity corresponds to approx. 4.5 h−1) when the facility is in use between 7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m., and at night, from 11.00 p.m. to 6.00 a.m., the outdoor airflow is intensive (maximum ventilation capacity) to cool the building (free-cooling) when external conditions allow it, and at other times at least one air exchange per hour is carried out. This minimum outdoor airflow rate (1 h−1) applies when the outdoor air temperature is above 24 °C. Cooling is only passive—without the use of a heat pump, only the circulation pump is used; the water circulating in the ground exchanger is pumped to the heat recovery chiller, which cools the air distributed around the building;
- ▪
- Variant 2—Forced night ventilation (free-cooling). Maximum outdoor airflow (approx. 4.5 h−1) in the hours between 11.00 p.m. and 6.00 a.m. Mechanical ventilation kept on during the day from 7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m.—at 4.5 h−1 regardless of external conditions, and at other times at 1 h−1. In this variant, no ground heat exchanger or natural ventilation were used;
- ▪
- Variant 3—Natural night cooling. Mechanical ventilation kept on during the day from 7.00 a.m. to 3.00 p.m.—approx. 4.5 h−1. At other times 1 h−1 was used, no ground exchanger was used, windows were kept closed during the day, natural night ventilation was used between 11.00 p.m. and 6.00 a.m. by way of a 20% tilt of all windows. The value of the minimum permissible indoor air temperature when tilting the windows is 20 °C;
- ▪
- Variant 4—Completely natural functioning of the building during the day and night. Mechanical ventilation turned off, no ground heat exchanger used, windows tilted during the day when the hall is in use, i.e., from 7.00 a.m. to 3 p.m. However, natural ventilation depends on external conditions (if Tout > Tint—windows are closed) and natural night ventilation between 11.00 p.m.–6.00 a.m. by the way of a 20% tilt of all windows. The value of the minimum permissible indoor air temperature when tilting the windows is 20 °C.
4. Aggregated Overheating Measure
- 1..
- The weighting factor kc equals 0 when PMV is within the recommended thermal comfort range: −0.5 < PMV < +0.5;
- 2.
- The weighting factor kc is taken in accordance with Table 6, depending on how much the maximum comfort range is exceeded by;
- 3.
- The products of the weighting factor kc and the number of hours for all ranges are summed up. For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed that the conventional unit of measurement is PMV-hour (PMVh).
Variant 2: (15 · 1.0) + (15 · 2.0) + (2 · 4.0) = 53.0 PMVh
Variant 3: (16 · 1.0) + (18 · 2.0) + (4 · 4.0) = 68.0 PMVh
Variant 4: (22 · 1.0) + (15 · 2.0) + (11 · 4.0) = 96.0 PMVh
5. Discussion of Results
6. Conclusions
- ▪
- Intensive night mechanical ventilation combined with high thermal inertia of building structure, without a ground heat exchanger or heat pump, allows for a significant reduction of thermal discomfort in the interior analyzed. However, it is not possible to completely protect the building from overheating in this way in the hottest period of the year and to meet the requirements of the Fanger model at the same time;
- ▪
- However, in line with current trends as well as standard requirements, the assessment of the indoor climate in buildings without mechanical cooling takes into account the natural adaptation of the user’s body to the conditions of elevated ambient temperature. The conditions in the schoolroom analyzed fully met the adaptive comfort criteria included in the PN-EN 16798-1: 2019-06 standard;
- ▪
- The analyses carried out in this article confirmed the possibility of giving up the mechanical cooling system of the building using a hybrid system of mechanical and natural ventilation;
- ▪
- A ventilation system that is mechanically simple, however, requires an intelligent control system, which takes into account the prevailing hygienic requirements and at the same time minimizes heat gains from the outdoor air in the hot season, cool down the thermal mass of the building at night, but prevent its excessive cooling, etc.;
- ▪
- An adaptive method of determining thermal comfort should be used wherever possible. The synergy of the internal environment, controlled by users in response to the prevailing external conditions and low energy consumption in passive buildings, is an indispensable component of the idea of sustainable development. Taking into account the possibilities of human thermoregulation and active control of conditions by users through opening windows, using shading devices or controlled air exchange, it is possible to design buildings that guarantee good thermal conditions with minimal investment and operating costs and limited environmental impact.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References and Notes
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Environmental Parameter | Number of Hours in Specific Ranges of Outdoor Temperatures (out of 1464 h) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
<15 °C | 15–20 °C | 20–25 °C | 25–30 °C | >30 °C | |
Outdoor air temperature | 723 | 440 | 211 | 75 | 15 |
Variants/Characteristics | Variant 1 Reference Model | Variant 2 | Variant 3 | Variant 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Time when the object is in use | 7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m. | 7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m. | 7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m. | 7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m. |
Mechanical ventilation [h−1] | ||||
7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m. | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.5 | no |
11.00 p.m.–6.00 a.m. | free-cooling | free-cooling | no | no |
3.00–11.00 p.m. | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | no |
Use of a ground heat exchanger | yes | no | no | no |
Natural ventilation | N | |||
7.00 a.m.–3.00 p.m. | no | no | no | Yes if Tout > Tint—windows are closed |
night | no | no | 20% | 20% |
Simulation Variants | Indoor Air Temperature ta [°C] | Operative Temperature to [°C] | Radiation Temperature tr [°C] |
---|---|---|---|
Highest Value | Highest Value | Highest Value | |
Variant 1 | 27.7 | 27.6 | 27.5 |
Variant 2 | 31.2 | 30.3 | 29.3 |
Variant 3 | 31.6 | 30.8 | 30.0 |
Variant 4 | 31.5 | 30.7 | 29.9 |
Simulation Variants | Number of Hours in a Given Temperature Range (out of 344 h) | Degree-Hours of Discomfort | |
---|---|---|---|
24.0–27.0 °C | >27.0 °C | ||
Variant 1 | 177 | 13 | 13 |
Variant 2 | 113 | 44 | 107 |
Variant 3 | 114 | 47 | 117 |
Variant 4 | 116 | 65 | 146 |
Simulation Variants | Number of Hours in the Thermal Comfort Range−0.5 < PMV < +0.5 | Number of Hours in the Range +0.5 < PMV < +1.0 | Number of Hours in the Range +1.0 < PMV < +1.5 | Number of Hours in the Range +1.5 < PMV < +2.0 | Weighted Measure of Discomfort Related to Overheating [PMVh] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
variant 1 | 165 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 9.0 |
variant 2 | 110 | 15 | 15 | 2 | 53.0 |
variant 3 | 112 | 16 | 18 | 4 | 68.0 |
variant 4 | 136 | 22 | 15 | 11 | 96.0 |
PMV | Weighting Factor kc |
---|---|
−0.5 < PMV < +0.5 | 0 |
+0.5 < PMV < +1.0 | 1 |
+1.0 < PMV < +1.5 | 2 |
+1.5 < PMV < +2.0 | 4 |
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Dudzińska, A.; Kisilewicz, T. Alternative Ways of Cooling a Passive School Building in Order to Maintain Thermal Comfort in Summer. Energies 2021, 14, 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14010070
Dudzińska A, Kisilewicz T. Alternative Ways of Cooling a Passive School Building in Order to Maintain Thermal Comfort in Summer. Energies. 2021; 14(1):70. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14010070
Chicago/Turabian StyleDudzińska, Anna, and Tomasz Kisilewicz. 2021. "Alternative Ways of Cooling a Passive School Building in Order to Maintain Thermal Comfort in Summer" Energies 14, no. 1: 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14010070