A Review of Potential Cementing Systems for Sealing and Support Matrices in Deep Borehole Disposal of Radioactive Waste
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (i)
- The provision of a seal/barrier preventing the ingress of saline groundwater to the waste container, thus prolonging the container life and delaying the release of any radionuclides into the near field.
- (ii)
- The provision of mechanical support to protect the container against buckling and damage caused by the load from overlying packages, which could breach the waste container and subsequently release radionuclides before the borehole is finally sealed.
2. Requirements of Candidate Cements
- The cement slurry must be capable of being placed in the disposal zone where the temperature and pressure during deployment at 5 km deep will be around 120 °C and 50 MPa. Once the slurry has hardened, the radiogenic heating may increase the temperature to around 190 °C.
- It has been anticipated that it will take around 4 hours to lower and place each of the waste canisters using coiled tubing [4], so retardation of the thickening time of any cement slurry will be needed for at least this long.
- Conditions within the disposal zone will be such that the cement slurry must be placed, set, and be durable as a hardened grout in saturated brine groundwater.
3. Cement Types
3.1. Portland Cement
- 1)
- Thickening and setting times of the cement slurry are accelerated and retarders are required, which has a significant impact on engineering operations and cost. The performance of retarders can vary widely with temperature and pressure.
- 2)
- Above ~120 °C, the hardened pure Portland cement binder slowly loses strength as the temperature increases, due to crystallisation of the main calcium silicate hydrate binding phase to a phase known as α-C2SH with an increase in porosity, giving rise to a phenomenon known as ‘strength retrogression’ where the strength slowly decreases with time.
Durability If Used as an SSM
3.2. Calcium Sulfoaluminate (CSA)/Belite Cement
Durability If Used as SSM
3.3. Pozzolanic Cements
Durability If Used as an SSM
3.4. Alkali Activated or Geopolymeric Systems
Durability If Used as an SSM
3.5. Calcium Aluminate Cement (CAC) Systems
- Where rapid strength gain is required across a broad temperature range, even at low temperatures.
- To prevent biological corrosion due to the presence of aggressive microbes (e.g., sulphides) in applications, such as wastewater processing or sewer structures.
- Where structural strength is required at elevated temperatures, such as in refractory applications.
- As a constituent of blended cements designed for specific properties, such as rapid setting and strength gain applications, e.g., for airport runway repairs.
3.6. Phosphate Cements
Durability If Used as an SSM
3.7. Other Cementing Systems
4. Selection of an SSM Cementing System for DBD
4.1. Proven Durability
4.2. Placement
4.3. Regulation
4.4. Availability
4.5. Financial Consideration
4.6. Engineering and Placement
4.7. Radiation Stability
4.8. Potential System for SSMs
5. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
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Cement Type | Binder | Use in Wells |
---|---|---|
Portland oil well cement | Calcium silicate hydrate | Used extensively |
CSA cement | Ettringite/CSH | No evidence |
Alkali Activated systems | Metal aluminosilicate | Claimed suitable but no practical use |
Calcium Aluminates cement | Calcium aluminate hydrate | Used as P modified cement. No reports on field durability. |
Phosphate cement | Metal phosphate hydrate | Claimed but not used |
Pozzolan cement | CSH | Minor use |
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Collier, N.C.; Milestone, N.B.; Travis, K.P. A Review of Potential Cementing Systems for Sealing and Support Matrices in Deep Borehole Disposal of Radioactive Waste. Energies 2019, 12, 2393. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12122393
Collier NC, Milestone NB, Travis KP. A Review of Potential Cementing Systems for Sealing and Support Matrices in Deep Borehole Disposal of Radioactive Waste. Energies. 2019; 12(12):2393. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12122393
Chicago/Turabian StyleCollier, Nicholas Charles, Neil Brennan Milestone, and Karl Patrick Travis. 2019. "A Review of Potential Cementing Systems for Sealing and Support Matrices in Deep Borehole Disposal of Radioactive Waste" Energies 12, no. 12: 2393. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12122393