An Overview of Direct Current Distribution System Architectures & Benefits
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. DC Distribution—Bus Structures and Power Architectures
2.1. DC Bus Structures
2.1.1. Radial Bus Structure
2.1.2. Ring Bus Structure
2.1.3. Ladder Bus Structure
2.1.4. Meshed Bus Structure
2.2. Power Architectures
2.2.1. Paralleling
2.2.2. Cascading
2.2.3. Source Splitting
2.2.4. Load Splitting
2.2.5. Stacking
3. Efficiency
4. Safety and Protection
4.1. Personal Protection
- No effect
- A little pain but no dangerous effects
- Muscular contraction and respiratory compromise, which are reversible
- Critical effects such as ventricular fibrillation
4.2. Equipment Protection
4.3. Grounding Methods
4.3.1. Direct Grounding Method
- Positive line grounding: In this system, the positive line is connected to ground as shown in Figure 6a. This system provides easy detection and breaking of current during a short circuit or earth fault. Monopole breaking is used to break the current. During a fault, the direction of the current through the human heart is upward and the heart-current factor F [39] is twice that of the direct negative grounding system. As a result, it seems like twice the current is flowing through the human body. The current one receives during an electric shock in this type of grounding is the largest among all the grounding systems as the circuit impedance is very low. However, as the fault current is large, it can be interrupted with better accuracy.
- Negative line grounding: In this type of grounding the negative line is connected to the ground as shown in Figure 6b. The properties of this grounding method are similar to positive line grounding. The current one receives in this type of grounding is usually high, but not as high as positive line grounding.
- Mid-point line grounding: In this type of grounding, the voltage to grounding is half of that compared to one end grounding as shown in Figure 6c. It is easy to detect and break currents during short circuit and ground faults. The current is usually large when short circuit or earth faults occur on the negative line. When breaking fault current, it is necessary to break both the positive and negative lines at the same time. Usually, rectifiers and batteries implement this type of grounding and hence they need to deal with higher initial costs.
4.3.2. Mid-Point Grounding with High Resistance
4.3.3. One-End Grounding with High Resistance
4.3.4. Floating System
5. Reliability
6. Cost
7. Voltage Level Selection
8. Global Market for DC Distribution Systems
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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System Features | Radial Bus | Ring Bus | Ladder Bus | Meshed Bus |
---|---|---|---|---|
Power Reliability | Very Low | Moderate | High | Very High |
No. of Components | Low | Moderate | High | Very High |
Cost | Very Low | Low | Moderate | Very High |
System | Source | DC Load | AC Load | ACwC Load |
---|---|---|---|---|
AC | DC | DC–AC–DC | DC–AC | DC–AC–DC–AC |
AC | AC–DC | - | AC–DC–AC | |
DC | DC | - | DC–AC | DC–AC |
AC | AC–DC | AC–DC–AC | AC–DC–AC |
System | Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) | Distribution | IT Power Supply | Overall Efficiency |
---|---|---|---|---|
480 to 208 Vac | 96.20% | 96.52% | 90.00% | 83.56% |
400/230 Vac | 96.20% | 99.50% | 90.25% | 86.39% |
48 Vdc | 92.86% | 99.50% | 91.54% | 84.58% |
380 Vdc | 96.00% | 99.50% | 91.75% | 87.64% |
Hybrid 575 Vdc | 95.32% | 92.54% | 91.54% | 80.74% |
Year | Country | Organization | Voltage Level |
---|---|---|---|
2009 | United States | Intel Corporation | 400 Vdc |
University of California, San Diego (UCSD) | 380 Vdc | ||
Validus (ABB) | 550 Vdc | ||
France | France Telecom | 350 Vdc | |
Sweden | UPN AB. | 350 Vdc | |
Japan | NTT group | 380/400 Vdc | |
New Zealand | Telecom NZ | 220 Vdc | |
2014 | United States | SAP | 380 Vdc |
Intel Corporation | |||
Stanford University | |||
IO | |||
University of California, San Diego (UCSD) | |||
Duke Energy | |||
Clustered Systems | |||
NEXTEK | |||
IBM | |||
Validus (ABB) | |||
Syracuse University | |||
Steel Ocra | |||
North America Telecom | |||
Canada | Canada Telecom Operator | ||
France | France Telecom | ||
Swiss | Green.Ch, ABB | ||
India | IBM | ||
Taiwan | Taiwan IT | ||
Singapore | IBM | ||
China | China Mobile | ||
New Zealand | Telecom NZ | ||
Japan | NTT Group | 380/400 Vdc | |
Norway | UPN AB | 350/380 Vdc | |
Sweden | Netpower Labs AB | 350/380 Vdc | |
Korea | - | 300/380 Vdc | |
China | China Telecom | 240/380 Vdc |
Standard | Description |
---|---|
ETSI EN 300 132-3 | Power supply interface at the input to telecommunications equipment |
ETSI EN 301 605 | Earthing and bonding of 400 Vdc data and telecom (ICT) equipment |
ITU-T L.1200 | Direct current power feeding interface up to 400 Vdc at the input to telecommunication and ICT equipment |
YD/T 2378-2011 | 240 Vdc power supply system for telecommunications |
EMerge Alliance Data/Telecom Center Standard | Creates an integrated, open platform for power, infrastructure, peripheral device and control applications to facilitate the hybrid use of AC and DC power within data centers and telecommunications central offices |
IEC 61984 | Connectors—Safety requirements and tests |
UL 1977 | Components connectors for use in data, signal, control, and power applications |
IEC 60950 | Information technology equipment—Safety |
UL 60950 | Safety for information technology equipment |
IEC 60644-1 | Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage systems |
IEC/TC 64 | Electrical installations and protection against electric shock |
UL 62040-5 | DC UPS standard |
Product | Manufacturers |
---|---|
DC power system | Emerson, ABB, Delta, Netpower Labs, Eltek, Rectifier Technologies Ltd. (Australia), Japanese vendors, Chinese vendors |
DC Breaker | ABB, Carling, Schneider, Nader, Siemens |
Bus way | Starline, PDI, Eaton |
Rack PDU | Server Tech, API Tech, Delta, Fujitsu Components, Echola |
Connectors | Anderson, Hubbel, Rong Feng/Delta, Fujitsu Components |
Rack-Mount Power Supply | Emerson, Delta, AcBel, others |
Power Components | Vicor |
ICT Load | HP, IBM, Juniper, NEI, NEC, Supermico |
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Prabhala, V.A.; Baddipadiga, B.P.; Fajri, P.; Ferdowsi, M. An Overview of Direct Current Distribution System Architectures & Benefits. Energies 2018, 11, 2463. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092463
Prabhala VA, Baddipadiga BP, Fajri P, Ferdowsi M. An Overview of Direct Current Distribution System Architectures & Benefits. Energies. 2018; 11(9):2463. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092463
Chicago/Turabian StylePrabhala, Venkata Anand, Bhanu Prashant Baddipadiga, Poria Fajri, and Mehdi Ferdowsi. 2018. "An Overview of Direct Current Distribution System Architectures & Benefits" Energies 11, no. 9: 2463. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092463
APA StylePrabhala, V. A., Baddipadiga, B. P., Fajri, P., & Ferdowsi, M. (2018). An Overview of Direct Current Distribution System Architectures & Benefits. Energies, 11(9), 2463. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092463