An Examination of Multidimensional Time Perspective and Mental Health Outcomes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Time Perspective
1.1.1. Theoretical Conceptualization
1.1.2. Mental Health Outcomes
1.1.3. The Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory
1.2. The Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedure
2.2. Measures
2.3. Analytic Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary Analyses
3.2. Time Perspective, Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Rumination
3.3. The Test–Retest Reliability of the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory
4. Discussion
4.1. Time Perspective Dimensions Were Associated with Mental Health Outcomes
4.2. The Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory Demonstrated Test–Retest Reliability
4.3. Limitations and Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Time Perspective Dimension | Definition | Sample Response |
---|---|---|---|
Feelings | Time feelings | Positive and negative feelings about the past, present, and future | “My past makes me sad,” “My future makes me happy” |
Thoughts | Time frequency | How often one thinks about the past, present, and future | “Seldom,” “Almost always” |
Time orientation | Perceived relative importance of the time periods | ||
Time relation | Perceived relationship among the time periods |
Time Perspective | Sample | Subsample | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time 1 | Time 2 | |||||||||
M | SD | α | M | SD | α | M | SD | α | ra | |
Time Feelings | ||||||||||
Past Positive | 3.14 | 0.79 | 0.86 | 3.14 | 0.79 | 0.88 | 3.20 | 0.81 | 0.91 | 0.85 *** |
Past Negative | 3.05 | 0.91 | 0.87 | 2.98 | 0.89 | 0.86 | 2.95 | 0.86 | 0.87 | 0.80 *** |
Present Positive | 3.42 | 0.75 | 0.91 | 3.35 | 0.77 | 0.92 | 3.40 | 0.79 | 0.93 | 0.77 *** |
Present Negative | 2.79 | 0.84 | 0.88 | 2.82 | 0.85 | 0.90 | 2.77 | 0.84 | 0.89 | 0.79 *** |
Future Positive | 3.96 | 0.76 | 0.92 | 3.91 | 0.79 | 0.92 | 3.85 | 0.81 | 0.93 | 0.85 *** |
Future Negative | 2.15 | 0.77 | 0.80 | 2.14 | 0.78 | 0.83 | 2.13 | 0.75 | 0.85 | 0.80 *** |
Time Frequency | ||||||||||
Past Frequency | 3.81 | 0.80 | N/A | 3.77 | 0.84 | N/A | 3.52 | 0.82 | N/A | 0.59 *** |
Present Frequency | 3.92 | 0.82 | N/A | 3.95 | 0.82 | N/A | 3.93 | 0.73 | N/A | 0.40 *** |
Future Frequency | 4.20 | 0.85 | N/A | 4.15 | 0.91 | N/A | 4.11 | 0.87 | N/A | 0.60 *** |
Time Perspective | Distribution, n (% a) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Subsample | |||
Time 1 | Time 2 | |||
Time Orientation | ||||
1. Past | 4 (1) | 1 (1) | 0 (0) | |
2. Present | 23 (7) | 12 (7) | 11 (6) | |
3. Future | 29 (9) | 18 (10) | 17 (10) | |
4. Past–Future | 45 (13) | 21 (12) | 12 (7) | |
5. Past–Present | 9 (3) | 6 (3) | 10 (6) | |
6. Present–Future | 175 (52) | 94 (53) | 93 (52) | |
7. Balanced | 52 (15) | 26 (15) | 35 (20) | |
Pearson’s χ2 (df) | N/A | 226.55 *** (30) | ||
Cramér’s V | N/A | 0.50 | ||
Time Relation | ||||
1. Unrelated | 18 (5) | 8 (4) | 7 (4) | |
2. Present–Future Related | 79 (23) | 41 (23) | 43 (24) | |
3. Linearly Related | 95 (28) | 55 (31) | 48 (27) | |
4. Interrelated | 145 (43) | 74 (42) | 80 (45) | |
Pearson’s χ2 (df) | N/A | 57.36 *** (9) | ||
Cramér’s V | N/A | 0.33 |
Variable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time Feelings | |||||||||||||
1. Past Positive | — | −0.69 *** | 0.22 *** | −0.19 *** | 0.12 * | −0.09 | −0.03 | 0.09 | 0.00 | N/A | N/A | −0.26 *** | −0.01 |
2. Past Negative | −0.75 *** | — | −0.29 *** | 0.38 *** | −0.15 ** | 0.27 *** | 0.19 *** | −0.12 * | −0.01 | N/A | N/A | 0.40 *** | 0.01 |
3. Present Positive | 0.39 *** | −0.39 *** | — | −0.82 *** | 0.44 *** | −0.43 *** | −0.12 * | 0.17 ** | 0.06 | N/A | N/A | −0.37 *** | 0.13 * |
4. Present Negative | −0.34 *** | 0.47 *** | −0.83 *** | — | −0.45 *** | 0.60 *** | 0.24 *** | −0.11 * | −0.06 | N/A | N/A | 0.45 *** | −0.17 ** |
5. Future Positive | 0.24 ** | −0.26 *** | 0.53 *** | −0.54 *** | — | −0.70 *** | −0.03 | 0.08 | 0.29 *** | N/A | N/A | −0.14 ** | 0.05 |
6. Future Negative | −0.20 ** | 0.35 *** | −0.45 *** | 0.59 *** | −0.77 *** | — | 0.13 * | −0.10 | −0.19 *** | N/A | N/A | 0.28 *** | −0.13 * |
Time Frequency | |||||||||||||
7. Past Frequency | −0.05 | 0.21 ** | −0.19 * | 0.22 ** | −0.16 * | 0.08 | — | 0.06 | 0.21 *** | N/A | N/A | 0.44 *** | −0.21 *** |
8. Present Frequency | 0.09 | −0.12 | 0.15 | −0.12 | 0.14 | −0.28 *** | 0.08 | — | 0.12 * | N/A | N/A | −0.05 | −0.05 |
9. Future Frequency | 0.06 | −0.06 | 0.13 | −0.12 | 0.41 *** | −0.39 *** | 0.10 | 0.28 *** | — | N/A | N/A | 0.13 * | −0.19 *** |
Mental Health Outcomes a | |||||||||||||
10. Depressive Symptoms | −0.15 | 0.20 ** | −0.30 *** | 0.29 *** | −0.20 ** | 0.18 * | 0.44 *** | −0.03 | 0.05 | — | N/A | N/A | N/A |
11. Anxiety | −0.21 ** | 0.28 *** | −0.43 *** | 0.46 *** | −0.26 *** | 0.29 *** | 0.39 *** | −0.09 | 0.09 | 0.60 *** | — | N/A | N/A |
12. Rumination | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | — | −0.19 *** |
13. Age | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.19 * | −0.19 * | 0.08 | −0.11 | −0.11 | 0.10 | −0.17 * | −0.17 * | −0.21 ** | N/A | — |
Time Perspective a | Mental Health Outcomes b | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Depressive Symptoms | Anxiety | Rumination | |||||||||||||
B | SE B | ß | F ratio | B | SE B | ß | F ratio | B | SE B | ß | F ratio | ||||
Time Feelings | |||||||||||||||
Past Positive | −0.29 | 0.82 | −0.02 | 24.84 *** | 0.35 | −1.05 * | 0.44 | −0.14 | 28.60 *** | 0.38 | −2.16 *** | 0.44 | −0.25 | 13.97 *** | 0.10 |
Past Negative | 0.54 | 0.78 | 0.04 | 24.98 *** | 0.35 | 1.14 ** | 0.42 | 0.16 | 29.29 *** | 0.39 | 2.93 *** | 0.36 | 0.40 | 28.60 *** | 0.19 |
Present Positive | −0.69 | 0.91 | −0.05 | 25.02 *** | 0.35 | −1.95 *** | 0.47 | −0.25 | 33.37 *** | 0.42 | −3.14 *** | 0.45 | −0.35 | 22.83 *** | 0.16 |
Present Negative | 0.16 | 0.87 | 0.01 | 24.81 *** | 0.35 | 2.15 *** | 0.42 | 0.30 | 36.64 *** | 0.45 | 3.45 *** | 0.39 | 0.43 | 33.13 *** | 0.22 |
Future Positive | −0.66 | 0.82 | −0.05 | 25.05 *** | 0.35 | −1.07 * | 0.45 | −0.14 | 28.59 *** | 0.38 | −1.08 * | 0.47 | −0.12 | 7.50 *** | 0.05 |
Future Negative | 0.03 | 0.91 | 0.00 | 24.79 *** | 0.35 | 1.57 ** | 0.48 | 0.20 | 30.61 *** | 0.40 | 2.17 *** | 0.46 | 0.25 | 13.40 *** | 0.10 |
Time Frequency | |||||||||||||||
Past Frequency | 3.15 *** | 0.82 | 0.24 | 30.60 *** | 0.40 | 1.06 * | 0.49 | 0.14 | 28.24 *** | 0.38 | 3.50 *** | 0.42 | 0.42 | 30.18 *** | 0.21 |
Present Frequency | 0.43 | 0.89 | 0.03 | 24.89 *** | 0.35 | −0.54 | 0.50 | −0.07 | 26.82 *** | 0.37 | −0.47 | 0.44 | −0.06 | 6.07 *** | 0.04 |
Future Frequency | −0.13 | 0.75 | −0.01 | 24.80 *** | 0.35 | 0.29 | 0.42 | 0.04 | 26.53 *** | 0.37 | 0.81 | 0.43 | 0.10 | 6.93 *** | 0.05 |
Time Perspective | Mental Health Outcomes a | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Depressive Symptoms | Anxiety | Rumination | |||||
M (SE) | 95% CI | M (SE) | 95% CI | M (SE) | 95% CI | ||
Time Orientation | |||||||
1. Past | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 28.38 (3.50) | [21.49, 35.27] | |
2. Present | 36.26 (3.42) | [29.48, 43.03] | 9.41 (2.57) | [4.32, 14.51] | 20.77 (1.46) | [17.90, 23.65] | |
3. Future | 40.43 (2.32) | [35.84, 45.02] | 12.15 (1.27) | [9.63, 14.67] | 23.85 (1.23) | [21.44, 26.26] | |
4. Past–Future | 45.61 (2.75) | [40.16, 51.06] | 8.25 (1.61) | [5.06, 11.45] | 25.96 (0.98) | [24.02, 27.89] | |
5. Past–Present | 44.63 (3.24) | [38.21, 51.04] | 10.76 (1.76) | [7.28, 14.24] | 23.15 (2.17) | [18.88, 27.43] | |
6. Present–Future | 42.12 (0.96) | [40.21, 44.02] | 9.11 (0.54) | [8.04, 10.19] | 22.07 (0.49) | [21.09, 23.04] | |
7. Balanced | 42.61 (1.57) | [39.50, 45.72] | 10.59 (0.94) | [8.73, 12.45] | 23.64 (0.92) | [21.82, 25.45] | |
F) | 2.99 *** (0.36) | 3.13 *** (0.45) | 1.95 ** (0.09) | ||||
η2 | 0.55 | 0.66 | 0.18 | ||||
Time Relation | |||||||
1. Unrelated | 37.56 (3.60) | [30.44, 44.67] | 12.64 (2.24) | [8.21, 17.08] | 23.29 (1.56) | [20.21, 26.36] | |
2. Present–Future | 41.33 (1.47) | [38.43, 44.23] | 9.34 (0.80) | [7.76, 10.92] | 20.95 (0.75) | [19.48, 22.42] | |
3. Linearly Related | 40.54 (1.37) | [37.82, 43.26] | 11.03 (0.75) | [9.55, 12.51] | 23.73 (0.68) | [22.39, 25.06] | |
4. Interrelated | 43.77 (1.03) | [41.72, 45.82] | 8.94 (0.59) | [7.78, 10.11] | 23.60 (0.55) | [22.51, 24.69] | |
F) | 3.14 *** (0.37) | 3.25 *** (0.46) | 1.85 ** (0.07) | ||||
η2 | 0.55 | 0.66 | 0.16 |
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Moon, J.; Lieber, R.J.; Bayazitli, I.; Mello, Z.R. An Examination of Multidimensional Time Perspective and Mental Health Outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 4688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064688
Moon J, Lieber RJ, Bayazitli I, Mello ZR. An Examination of Multidimensional Time Perspective and Mental Health Outcomes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(6):4688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064688
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoon, Julia, Rebecca J. Lieber, Ilke Bayazitli, and Zena R. Mello. 2023. "An Examination of Multidimensional Time Perspective and Mental Health Outcomes" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 6: 4688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064688
APA StyleMoon, J., Lieber, R. J., Bayazitli, I., & Mello, Z. R. (2023). An Examination of Multidimensional Time Perspective and Mental Health Outcomes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(6), 4688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064688