Indigenous Border Migrants and (Im)Mobility Policies in Chile in Times of COVID-19
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. (Im)Mobility Policies in Border Studies
1.1.1. Thoughts on (Im)Mobility
1.1.2. Securitization and (Im)Mobility Policies
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Cross-Border (Im)Mobility Processes in Times of COVID-19
The main objective of this new law is to Put our House in Order through an orderly, safe, and regular migration policy, which allows legal migration and combats illegal migration […] those who enter or try to enter our country clandestinely by unauthorized means, not only commit a crime, they also risk being subject to expulsion.[46]
3.1.1. (Im)Mobility Policies Linked to the Pandemic
3.1.2. Militarization for Public Health
[The army] frequently confuses Chilean Aymaras with Bolivian Aymaras, treating them with discrimination related to identity control and the native language of the Aymara people. In this sense, there is no equality of rights regarding movements between Chilean and Bolivian Aymaras, concerning the hundreds of migrants who cross the border, in which it can be observed that they are not subject to any control.[54] (s/p)
Aymara communities, in this sense, have been prevented from accessing a series of products they exchange or get a reasonable price for in surrounding communities. This has increased the cost of living of Aymara families and led to a shortage of specific products such as gas, non-perishable food, and coca leaves, among others, which are vital for our people. In addition, they have prevented members of the community from going to the aid of family members, including the elderly, who in the communities have a fundamental role as they are custodians of the knowledge and wisdom of ancestral uses and customs. The high level of administrative surveillance of ‘official border crossings’ has caused a greater flow through ‘unauthorized’ crossings. Our communities have seen an increase in the frequency and quantity of vehicles (including caravans of up to 40 vehicles), sometimes related to drug trafficking, smuggling, and other crimes”.[54] (s/p)
The militarization and placement of two armored vehicles on the border, along with military personnel, has only controlled our people, not the immigrants, as the army provides humanitarian assistance to migrants […]. I believe that what is needed here is some self-criticism and to sit down and get to work, as it is not just this issue of the humanitarian point of view of the rights that migrants have to migrate, but also the rights that we have, for example, the indigenous peoples, as we deal with this migratory phenomenon, which is not our responsibility, and that is clearly detrimental to our cultural identity.
3.2. Impact on the Health/Disease/Care Process
I traveled first… the first year I was making the journey every three months, because as I did not have a visa, so I had to leave no matter what, because they told me: you have to have your papers in order to be able to get the visa, so you cannot have anything out of order, things like that. Then, I went every three months, and I saw them and came back again. I entered […] I was almost a month, and then I returned. […] The last time I left was just before the pandemic… and then a month went by, and just when the pandemic was beginning, I returned. That month that we came, the pandemic had started, we had already entered, and I could not leave… (N., Bolivian woman, interviewed in May 2021, Iquique.)
Z.A.: So, whenever I travel to Bolivia, people in Chile ask me to bring back medicines, all from there. […] I brought ovules for body pain, oil, and natural medicine. What they have confiscated are the maticos, the dry leaves. I’ve brought a lot of that, and they have confiscated it […] I had about seven herbs, including chamomile, fresh chamomile, and here there is not any… the same with muña, and cola de caballo. There are two types of cola de caballo, one that’s yellow and the other green. I brought the yellow one. I also brought boldo.
C.P.: Ah, and you brought them from Cochabamba?
Z.A.: From Cochabamba, without the stems. Just like they sell parsley, all tied together, just like that. (Z.A., Bolivian woman, interviewed in September 2020, Iquique.)
E.C.: They wanted to confiscate that from me… in an apple box, you can fit 25 units of large ‘mesas’ offerings and about 40 little ones. When I was inspected by the SAG official [he said]: ‘I am letting you go now, but sign this other form, do it for me. And if you carry this stuff again, I’m going to arrest you’ […] Last year it was not so bad… then I would bring about 2 or 3 crates of apple boxes, […] brought them on the bus without any hassle. But now [since the border closure], it is just not on. You have to break the law and bring it all in illegally. (E.C., Bolivian yatiri healer, interviewed in July 2020, Alto Hospicio).
… This type of cargo, specifically the alpaca fetuses, which are domestic South American camelids, represent an extreme risk to domestic (animal) health, as they can carry exotic diseases not present in the country, which could have a considerable impact on domestic production and affect the export of Chilean products to critical foreign markets.
3.3. Deficits in Indigenous and Migrant Law
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Actor | Gender | Nationality | Age | Residence | Date | Interview Modality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immigrant | Female | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | apr-21 | Virtual |
Immigrant | Male | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | apr-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | may-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | apr-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | mar-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | apr-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | may-21 | Virtual |
Immigrant | Female | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | may-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | may-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Colombian | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Colombian | Elderly | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Colombian | Elderly | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Colombian | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Colombian | Elderly | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | LGBTQ+ | Cuban | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Ecuadorian | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Adult | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Male | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | LGBTQ+ | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Immigrant | Female | Venezuelan | Young | In transit | nov-21 | In person |
Actor | Gender | Nationality | Age | Residence | Date | Interview Modality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yatiri | Male | Peruvian | Elderly | Tacna (Perú) | feb-21 | In person |
Yatiri | Male | Peruvian | Elderly | Tacna (Perú) | feb-21 | In person |
Yatiri | Male | Bolivian | Elderly | Alto Hospicio (Chile) | feb-21 | In person |
Yatiri | Male | Bolivian | Elderly | Oruro (Bolivia) | feb-21 | In person |
Human Rights Lawyer | Male | Chilean | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | dic-21 | In person |
Church Volunteer | Male | Chilean | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | mar-22 | In person |
Immigrant leader | Female | Bolivian | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | apr-21 | In person |
Psychologist | Female | Chilean | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | feb-22 | In person |
Lawyer NGO | Female | Chilean | Adult | Iquique (Chile) | may-22 | In person |
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Piñones-Rivera, C.; Liberona, N.; Arancibia, R.; Jiménez, V. Indigenous Border Migrants and (Im)Mobility Policies in Chile in Times of COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 9728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159728
Piñones-Rivera C, Liberona N, Arancibia R, Jiménez V. Indigenous Border Migrants and (Im)Mobility Policies in Chile in Times of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(15):9728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159728
Chicago/Turabian StylePiñones-Rivera, Carlos, Nanette Liberona, Rodrigo Arancibia, and Verónica Jiménez. 2022. "Indigenous Border Migrants and (Im)Mobility Policies in Chile in Times of COVID-19" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 15: 9728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159728