Prenatal and Perinatal Environmental Influences Shaping the Neonatal Immune System: A Focus on Asthma and Allergy Origins
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Immune System Development and Maturation
3. Prenatal Environmental Exposures and Susceptibility to Asthma and Allergies
4. Prenatal and Perinatal Environmental Influences and Immune System at Birth: Review of the Literature
4.1. Search Strategy and Study Selection
4.2. Season of Birth
4.3. Mode of Delivery
4.4. Prenatal Exposure to a Farming Environment, Pets, and Indoor Allergens
4.5. Tobacco Smoking
4.6. Persistent and Non-persistent Organic Pollutants
4.7. Toxic Metals
4.8. Outdoor air Pollutants
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Author, Year [Ref.] | Location Study Design N | Outcomes Assessed | Season of Birth | Statistically Significant Main Findings | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells Frequency | Cytokine Patterns/Ig | ||||
Lehmann et al. 2002 [75] | Germany Cohort N = 158 | Cytokine response | Summer | ↓ induced-TNF-α (T cells) ↓ induced-IFN-γ (T cells) ↑ induced-IL-4 (T cells) | |
Sullivan Dillie et al. 2008 [77] | USA Cohort N = 272 | Cytokine response | Spring or summer | ↑ PHA-induced IL-5 ↑ PMA-induced IL-5 (summer) ↑ Staphylococcus aureus-induced IL-5 ↑ PHA-induced IL-13 ↑ PMA-induced IL-13 | |
Autumn or winter | ↑ CBMC proliferation ↓ Staphylococcus aureus-induced IL-13 | ||||
Collison et al. 2008 [73] | Gambia Cohort N = 138 | Lymphocytes (counts) | Wet season | ↑ leukocytes ↑ lymphocytes | |
Lendor et al. 2008 [76] | USA Cohort N = 350 | Cytokine response IgE | Winter | ↑ cockroach-induced IL-5 | |
Gold et al. 2009 [78] | USA Cohort N = 558 | Cytokine production | Autumn or winter | ↑ IFN-γ, IL-8 and TNF-α ↑ IL-12p40 | |
↑ LPS-induced IFN-α ↑ PG-induced IFN-α ↑ CpG-induced IL-8, TNF-α, and IL-10 ↑ cockroach-induced IFN-γ ↑ dust mite-induced IFN-γ ↑ tetanus toxoid-induced IFN-γ | |||||
Spring/ summer | ↑ CpG-induced IFN-α | ||||
Keski-Nisula et al. 2010 [79] | Finland Cohort N = 423 | Leukocytes (counts) | Cytokine response | Spring | ↓ P/I-induced IL-5, IL-10 and IFN-γ |
Thysen et al. 2016 [74] | Denmark Cohort N = 84 | Leukocytes Lymphocytes (counts) | Winter | ↑ Leukocytes, granulocytes, neutrophils and monocytes ↑ Plasmacytoid dendritic cells ↑ CD56 bright NK cells ↑ Activated Th cells | |
Spring | ↑ Tc cells |
Author, Year [Ref.] | Location Study Design N | Outcomes Assessed | Mode of Delivery | Statistically Significant Main Findings | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells Frequency | Cytokine Patterns/Ig | ||||
Samelson et al. 1992 [92] | USA Cross-sectional N = 12 | Lymphocytes (%) | Vaginal delivery | ↓ T and Th cells ↑ NK cells | |
Thilaganathan et al. 1994 [80] | UK Cross-sectional N = 40 | Leukocytes Lymphocytes (counts) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Leukocytes, neutrophils, monocytes and NK cells | |
Nikischin et al. 1997 [81] | Germany Cross-sectional N = 121 | Leukocytes (counts) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Leukocytes | |
Chirico et al. 1999 [82] | Italy Cross-sectional N = 203 | Leukocytes (counts) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Leukocytes and neutrophils | |
Grönlund et al. 1999 [83] | Finland Cross-sectional N = 64 | Leukocytes (counts and %) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Leukocytes and neutrophils ↓ Lymphocytes | |
Kotiranta-Ainamo et al. 1999 [91] | Finland Cross-sectional N = 50 | Lymphocytes Macrophages (%) | Cesarean section | ↓ CD14+ cells | |
Steinborn et al. 1999 [97] | Germany Cross-sectional N = 84 | Cytokine production | Vaginal delivery | ↑ IL-6 in myelomonocytic cord blood cells | |
Brown et al. 2003 [101] | USA Cross-sectional N = 16 | Cytokine response | Vaginal delivery | ↑ ConA-induced IFN-γ ↑ LPS-induced IFN-γ and IL-12 ↑ PHA-induced IFN-γ | |
Gessler et al. 2003 [90] | Switzerland Cross-sectional N = 30 | Neutrophils (counts) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Neutrophils ↑ E.Coli-induced phagocytic respiratory burst | |
Thornton et al. 2003 [96] | UK Cross-sectional N = 27 | Leukocytes (%) Lymphocytes (%) | Cytokine response | Cesarean section | ↑ CD62L+ Th cells |
Malamitsi-Puchner et al. 2005 [98] | Greece Cohort N = 78 | Cytokine production | Vaginal delivery | ↑ IFN-γ and IL-1β levels ↑ IL-6 and TNF-α levels | |
Ly et al. 2006 [102] | USA Cohort N = 37 | Cytokine response | Cesarean section | ↑ IFN-γ baseline secretion ↑ PHA-induced IFN-γ response ↑ cat dander allergen-induced IFN-γ response ↑ induced IL-13 response | |
Yektaei-Karin et al. 2007 [86] | Sweden Cross-sectional N = 168 | Leukocytes | Cytokine production | Vaginal delivery (compared to C-section) | ↑ IL-8 ↑ Leukocytes, neutrophils and monocytes |
Assisted delivery (compared to C-section) | ↑ IFN-γ ↑ IL-8 ↑ Leukocytes, neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes | ||||
Gold et al. 2009 [78] | USA Cohort N = 609 | Cytokine response | Cesarean section | ↓ LPS-induced IL-8 response ↓ PG-induced IL-8 response ↓ CpG-induced IL-12p40 response ↑ Respiratory syncytial virus-induced IL-12p40 response ↓ PHA-induced IL-13 response | |
Shen et al. 2009 [87] | Taiwan Cross-sectional N = 62 | Leukocytes (counts) | Cesarean section | ↓ Leukocytes, neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes ↓ TLR2 and TLR4 surface expression on monocytes | |
Keski-Nisula et al. 2010 [79] | Finland Cohort N = 423 | Leukocytes (counts) | Cytokine response | Cesarean section | ↓ Leukocytes ↓ induced IL-5 response |
Long labour | ↑ Leukocytes ↑ induced IFN-α and IL-5 response | ||||
Prostaglandin induction | ↓ induced IFN-γ response | ||||
Steinborn et al. 2010 [95] | Germany Cross-sectional N = 96 | Lymphocytes | Vaginal delivery | ↓ FoxP3 expression in Tregs cells | |
Bili et al. 2011 [93] | Greece Cross-sectional N = 81 | Lymphocytes (%) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ NK cells | |
Yildiran et al. 2011 [94] | Turkey Cross-sectional N = 39 | Lymphocytes (counts) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Treg cells | |
Almanzar et al. 2015 [84] | Austria Cohort N = 120 | Lymphocytes (counts and %) | Cytokine production | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Leukocytes (counts) ↑ Neutrophils and NK cells (%) ↓ Lymphocytes and T cells (%) ↑ IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-8 |
Birle et al. 2015 [85] | Germany Cohort N = 66 | Leukocytes (counts) | Vaginal delivery | ↑ Leukocytes | |
Treviño-Garza et al. 2016 [99] | Mexico Cross-sectional N = 125 | Cytokine production | Vaginal delivery | ↑ IL-6 | |
Liao et al. 2017 [23] | Taiwan Cohort N = 487 | Cytokine response | Cesarean section | ↓ TLR1-stimulated TNF-α and IL-6 | |
Lurà et al. 2018 [88] | Switzerland Cohort N = 289 | Leukocytes (counts) | Cesarean section | ↓ Leukocytes, basophilic granulocytes ↓ Plasmacytoid dendritic cells | |
Werlang et al. 2018 [89] | Brazil Cross-sectional N = 64 | Leukocytes (counts) | Cytokine production | Cesarean section | ↓ Leukocytes ↓ GM-CSF |
Nandanan et al. 2019 [100] | Singapore Cohort N = 98 | Cytokine production | Vaginal delivery | ↑ IL-6 and IL-8 ↓ TNF-α and G-CSF levels |
Author, Year [Ref] | Location Study Design N | Outcomes Assessed | Factor Assessed | Statistically Significant Main Findings | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells Frequency | Cytokine Patterns/Ig | ||||
Farming environment | |||||
Ege et al. 2008 [109] | 5 European countries (rural areas) Cohort N = 922 | Specific IgE levels (food and common inhalants) | Maternal farm exposures | ↓ grass pollen-specific IgE ↓ seasonal allergens -specific IgE ↑ cow’s milk-specific IgE ↑ food allergens -specific IgE | |
Consumption of boiled farm milk | ↑ cow’s milk-specific IgE ↑ food allergens-specific IgE | ||||
Maternal exposure to animal sheds, contact to cattle, removing dung, cleaning the henhouse, handling silage and hay during pregnancy | ↓ seasonal allergens-specific IgE | ||||
Schaub et al. 2009 [103] | Germany Cohort N = 82 | Treg cells (counts) | Cytokine responses | Farming mothers | ↑ Treg number and function ↓ Der p 1 plus PG-induced IL-5 ↑ Der p 1-induced IL-6 ↑ Der p 1 plus PG-induced IL-6 |
Cytokine responses | Stables | ↑ PG-induced CD4+CD25+ T cells ↓ Der p 1 plus PG-induced IL-5 | |||
Cytokine responses | Number of animal species ≥2 | ↑ IL-10 ↑ Der p 1-induced IFN-γ ↑ PG-induced IFN-γ ↓ Der p 1 plus PG-induced IL-5 | |||
Keski-Nisula et al. 2010 [79] | Finland Cohort N = 423 | Leukocytes (counts) | Cytokine responses | Father as farmer | ↓ Leukocytes ↓ induced IFN-γ, IL-5 and IL-10 |
Pfefferle et al. 2010 [110] | 5 European countries (rural areas) Cohort N = 625 | Cytokine response | Maternal farm exposures | ↑ induced IFN-γ | |
House spent in barn | ↑ induced TNF-α | ||||
Contact with farm animal species Consumption of unskimmed farm milk Consumption of butter made of farm milk | ↑ induced TNF-α and IFN-γ | ||||
Consumption of yogurt made of farm milk | ↓ induced IL-5 and IL-10 | ||||
Consumption of cheese made of farm milk | ↑ induced IL-5 | ||||
Lundell et al. 2015 [104] | Sweden Cohort N = 65 | Cytokine production | Farming mothers | ↑ B-cell activating factor (BAFF) | |
Indoor allergens | |||||
Heinrich et al. 2002 [107] | Germany Cohort N = 1332 | IgE | Endotoxin | U-shaped association with IgE ↓ IgE (medium exposure to endotoxin) | |
Dust mite (Der p 1) | ↑ IgE (medium exposure to mite allergen) | ||||
Roponen et al. 2005 [112] | Finland Cross-sectional N = 29 | Cytokine response | Endotoxin (in settled dust) | ↑ induced-IL-6 | |
Hagendorens et al. 2004 [115] | Belgium Cohort N = 22 | Lymphocytes (%) | T cell cytokine production | Dust mite (Der p 1) during second trimester | ↓ IFN-γ producing induced Th lymphocytes |
Peters et al. 2009 [108] | USA Cohort N = 301 | IgE | Dust mite (Der f 1 + Der p 1) | ↑ Dust mite-specific IgE | |
Cockroach (Bla g 1 + Bla g 2) | ↓ cockroach-specific IgE (indirectly) | ||||
Lappalainen et al. 2012 [114] | Finland Cohort N = 228 | Cytokine response | Staphylococcal enterotoxin B | ↓ LPS-induced IFN-γ | |
Mycobacterium spp. | ↓ LPS-induced IL-8 | ||||
Combined chemical markers | ↑induced TNF-α | ||||
Pets | |||||
Heinrich et al. 2002 [107] | Germany Cohort N = 1332 | IgE | Cat-allergen exposure | ↑ IgE | |
Roponen et al. 2005 [112] | Finland Cross-sectional N = 29 | Cytokine response | Cat/Dog | ↑ induced IL-6 | |
Aichbhaumik et al. 2008 [105] | USA Cohort N = 1049 | IgE | Cats Dogs | ↓ IgE | |
Sybilski et al. 2009 [106] | Poland Retrospective study N = 173 | IgE | Cats | ↑ grass and grain pollen-specific IgE ↑ food-specific IgE | |
Dogs | ↓ grass and grain pollen-specific IgE | ||||
Lappalainen et al. 2010 [111] | Finland Cohort N = 228 | Cytokine response | Dogs | ↓ induced TNF-α | |
Uzuner et al. 2013 [113] | Turkey Cross-sectional N = 62 | Cytokine production | Pets | NS |
Author, Year [Ref.] | Location Study Design N | Outcomes Assessed | Tobacco Smoking | Statistically Significant Main Findings | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells Frequency | Cytokine Patterns/Ig | ||||
Harrison 1979 [116] | - Cross-sectional N = 257 | Leukocytes | Maternal smoking | ↓ neutrophils | |
Mercelina-Roumans et al. 1996 [117] | The Netherlands Cohort N = 142 | WBC Leukocytes Reticulocytes | Maternal smoking | ↓ neutrophils | |
Noakes et al. 2003 [123] | Australia Cross-sectional N = 57 | Cytokine response | Maternal smoking | ↑ IL-13 response to HDM and OVA | |
Noakes et al. 2006 [121] | Australia Cohort N = 122 | Cytokine response | Maternal smoking | ↓ TNF-α responses via TLR2, 3 and 4 ↓ IL-6 responses via TLR2 and 9 ↓ IL-10 via TLR2 | |
Pachlopnik Schmid et al. 2007 [118] | Switzerland Cohort N = 97 | Leukocytes Lymphocytes | Maternal smoking | ↓ neutrophils ↓ lymphocytes ↓ monocytes ↓ myeloid precursor dendritic cells | |
Karwowska et al. 2008 [119] | Poland Cohort N = 79 | Lymphocytes | IgE | Maternal smoking | ↓ T helper (CD4+) cells ↑ IgE |
Keski-Nisula et al. 2010 [79] | Finland Cohort N = 423 | Cytokine response | Maternal smoking | ↓ induced IL-5 response | |
Pfefferle et al. 2010 [110] | 5 European countries (rural areas) Cohort N = 625 | Cytokine response | Maternal smoking | ↓ induced-IL-5 levels | |
Latzin et al. 2011 [124] | Switzerland Cohort N = 265 | Cytokine production | Maternal smoking | ↓ IL-6 levels | |
Hinz et al. 2012 [120] | Germany Cohort N = 346 | Treg cells (counts) | Maternal smoking | ↓ Treg cells | |
Sevgican et al. 2012 [122] | USA Cohort N = 277 | Cytokine response | ↓ mitogen-stimulated IFN-γ |
Author, Year [Ref.] | Location Study Design N | Outcomes Assessed | Pollutant | Statistically Significant Main Findings | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells Frequency | Cytokine Patterns/Ig | ||||
Belles-Isles et al. 2002 [125] | Canada Cross-sectional N = 108 | Lymphocytes (%) | IgM IgG | Fishing family | ↓ Th naïve cells ↓ IgM and ↑ IgG |
PCBs and p,p′-DDE (cord blood) | ↑ IgG | ||||
Lehmann et al. 2002 [139] | Germany Cohort N = 85 | T cell cytokine response | VOCs | ↓ induced IFN-γ response (tetrachloroethylene) ↑ induced IFN-γ response (ethylbenzene and m,p-xylene) ↑ induced IL-2 response (hexane, dodecanem and tridecane) ↓ induced IL-2 response (trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene) ↑induced IL-4 response (methylcyclopentane, m,p-xylene and naphthalene) ↓ TNF-α response (methylcyclopentane¸ cyclohexane and tetrachoroethylene) | |
Bilrha et al. 2003 [126] | Canada Cross-sectional N = 112 | Lymphocytes | Cytokine response IgG | Fishing group | ↓ PHA-induced TNF-α |
Chlorinated pesticides ΣPCBs (cord blood) | Negative correlations between TNF-α and PCBs, p,p′-DDE, and HCB | ||||
Noakes et al. 2006 [121] | Australia Cohort N = 31 | Cytokine response | Organochlorines PCBs | NS | |
Brooks et al. 2007 [128] | USA Cohort N = 19 | Cytokine production | Placental p,p′-DDE | ↑ IL-13 levels ↑ IL-4/IFN-γ and ↑ IL-13/IFN-γ ratio | |
Horváthová et al. 2011 [129] | Slovakia Cross-sectional N = 362 | Leukocytes (%) Lymphocytes (%) | Living in a region with high levels of PCB contamination | ↓ Dendritic-like cells ↓ Myeloid dendritic cells ↑ Memory T cells ↓ Naive/resting T cells ↓ Suppressor inducer T-cells CD4+CD62L+ ↓ Truly naive helper/inducer T-cells CD4+CD62L+CD45RA+ ↑Terminally differentiated effector memory T-cells CD4+CD62L−CD45RA+ | |
Horváthová et al. 2011 [130] | Slovakia Cross-sectional N = 362 | Leukocytes Lymphocytes | Living in a region with high levels of PCB contamination | ↑ B cells (%) ↑ Activated B cells (%) ↑ Tc cells (%) ↓ NK cells (%) | |
Neta et al. 2011 [131] | USA Cross-sectional N = 272 | Cytokine production | Cis- and trans-Permethrin (Cord serum) | ↑ IL-1β levels ↓ Anti-inflammatory response (+IL-10-IL-12p70) | |
Oxychlordane (Cord serum) | ↓ IL-1β levels | ||||
Trans-nonachlor Piperonyl butoxide (Cord serum) | NS | ||||
Wang et al. 2011 [132] | Taiwan Cohort N = 244 | IgE | PFOA and PFOS (Cord serum) | ↑ IgE (boys) | |
PFNA (Cord serum) | NS | ||||
Ashley-Martin et al. 2015 [133] | Canada Cohort N = 1258 | TSLP IL-33 IgE | Phthalates in maternal urine at first trimester | Inverse non-linear association between maternal urinary MCPP and IL-33/TSLP levels Inverse non-linear association between maternal urinary MCPP and IgE levels | |
BPA, maternal urine 1st trimester | Inverse non-linear association between maternal urinary BPA and IL-33/TSLP levels | ||||
Ashley-Martin et al. 2015 [134] | Canada Cohort N = 1258 | TSLP IL-33 IgE | Organochlorines maternal plasma at 1st trimester | ↓ IL-33/TSLP (DDE) | |
Organophosphates in maternal urine at 1st trimester | ↓ IL-33/TSLP (DEP + DETP) | ||||
PCB, maternal plasma 1st trimester | ↓ IL-33/TSLP (PCB 118) | ||||
Liao et al. 2016 [137] | Taiwan Cohort N = 275 | Cytokine response | BPA | ↓ TLR3- and TLR4-stimulated TNF-α response ↓ TLR7-8-stimulated IL-6 response | |
Huang et al. 2017 [138] | Taiwan Cohort N = 241 | Cytokine production | BPA | ↓ TNF-α levels | |
Miyashita et al. 2018 [135] | Japan Cohort N = 268 | IgE | Dioxin-like compounds, maternal blood, 2nd and 3rd trimesters | ↓ IgE (boys) | |
Kelley et al. 2019 [136] | USA Cohort N = 56 | Cytokine production | 12 phthalates in maternal urine, 1st trimester | ↑ MIP-α (MnBP) ↑ MCP-3 (MEHP) |
Author, Year [Ref.] | Location Study Design N | Outcomes Assessed | Metal or Metalloid Assessed | Statistically Significant Main Findings | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells Frequency | Cytokine Patterns/Ig | ||||
Belles-Isles et al. 2002 [125] | Canada Cross-sectional N = 108 | Lymphocytes (%) | IgM IgG | Hg | ↓ Th naïve cells ↓ IgM |
Pb | ↑ IgG | ||||
Ahmed et al. 2011 [140] | Bangladesh Cohort N = 130 | Cytokine production | As | U-shaped association with proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-8, IFN-γ, TNF-α | |
Nadeau et al. 2014 [141] | USA Cohort N = 116 | Lymphocytes (counts) | As | ↓ naïve activated T cells (CD69+) ↑ Th2 cells (CD69− CD294+) ↑ T cell proliferation ↓ Treg suppressor function | |
Ashley-Martin et al. 2015 [134] | Canada Cohort N = 1258 | TSLP IL-33 IgE | Pb in maternal blood at 1st trimester | ↓ IL-33/TSLP ODDS | |
Nygaard et al. 2017 [142] | USA Cohort N = 63 | T-lymphocytes | As in toenails (8 wks. of post-partum) | ↓ Th memory cells ↓ activated Th memory cells (boys) | |
Cd in toenails within 8 weeks of post-partum | ↓ Th memory cells (girls) ↓ activated Th memory cells | ||||
Kelley et al. 2019 [136] | USA Cohort N = 56 | Cytokine production | As, Ba, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, W, Zn | ↑ MIP-α (Mo, Cd, Zn) ↑ MCP-3 (Mo, Ni, Zn) | |
Kim et al. 2019 [143] | Korea Cohort N = 331 | Cytokine production | Pb, Cr | ↑ IL-13 |
Author, Year [Ref.] | Location Study Design N | Outcomes Assessed | Pollutant | Statistically Significant Main Findings | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells Frequency | Cytokine Patterns/Ig | ||||
Hertz-Picciotto et al. 2002 [144] | Czech Republic Cross-sectional N = 518 | Lymphocytes (%) | Living in a high PM polluted area | ↑ NK cells ↓ T-lymphocytes | |
Hertz-Picciotto et al. 2005 [145] | Czech Republic Cross-sectional N = 1397 | Lymphocytes (%) | PAH 14 days before birth | ↓ T-lymphocytes ↓ Tc and Th cells ↑ B-lymphocytes | |
PM2.5 14 days before birth | ↓ T-lymphocytes and Th cells ↑ B-lymphocytes | ||||
Herr et al. 2010 [146] | Czech Republic Cohort N = 1397 | Lymphocytes (%) | PAHs PM2.5 | 1st Trimester: ↑ T-lymphocytes and Th cells ↓ NK cells 3rd Trimester: ↑ B-lymphocytes and NK cells ↓ T-lymphocytes and Th cells ↓ Tc cells (9th month) | |
Baïz et al. 2011 [147] | France Cohort N = 370 | Lymphocytes (%) | NO2 | 1st and 2nd Trimester: ↑ Tc cells (CD8+) 3rd Trimester: ↑ NK cells | |
PM10 | 1st Trimester: ↓ T cells ↑ NK cells 1st, 2nd and 3rd Trimester: ↓ CD25+ Th-cells | ||||
Benzene | ↓ CD4+CD25+ T cells | ||||
Latzin et al. 2011 [124] | Switzerland Cohort N = 265 | Cytokine production | PM10 last 3 days of pregnancy | ↓ IL-10 | |
PM10 last 3 mo. of pregnancy | ↑ IL-1ß | ||||
Ashley-Martin et al. 2016 [149] | Canada Cohort N = 1081 | IL-33 and TSLP levels | NO2 | ↑ IL-33 and TSLP (girls) ↑ IL-33/TSLP (3rd trimester, girls) | |
Whole pregnancy and 1st trimester PM2.5 | ↑ IgE (girls) | ||||
Lurà et al. 2018 [88] | Switzerland Cohort N = 295 | Leukocytes Lymphocytes (counts) | NO2 14 days before delivery | ↓ leukocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes | |
García-Serna et al. 2020 [148] | Spain Cohort N = 190 | Leukocytes Lymphocytes (counts) | Traffic-related NO2 | 1st Trimester: ↓ leukocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes and basophils ↓ NK and T cells ↓ Th, Th2 and Th17 cells ↓ Tc cells 2nd Trimester: ↑ T and Th cells 3rd Trimester: ↓ Th1Th2-related cells 15 days before delivery: ↓ NK and Th1Th2 cells Whole pregnancy: ↓ NK cells | |
Traffic-related PM2.5 | 1st Trimester: ↑ Th, Th1 and Treg cells 2nd Trimester: ↓ Th1 and Th1Th2 cells 3rd Trimester: ↓ NK cells ↑ Th17 cells 15 days before delivery: ↑ Th1 cells Whole pregnancy: ↓ Tc and Th1Th2 cells | ||||
Traffic-related PM10 | 1st Trimester: ↑ T, Th, Th1 and Th1Th2 cells 2nd Trimester: ↓ Th1, Th17, Th2 and Th1Th2 3rd Trimester: ↑ Th1 15 days before delivery: ↓ Treg cells Whole pregnancy: ↓ Th1Th2 cells | ||||
Traffic-related O3 | 1st Trimester: ↑ Th1 cells 2nd Trimester: ↓ Th1Th2 cells 15 days before delivery: ↑ NK cells Whole pregnancy: ↓ Th17 cells |
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García-Serna, A.M.; Martín-Orozco, E.; Hernández-Caselles, T.; Morales, E. Prenatal and Perinatal Environmental Influences Shaping the Neonatal Immune System: A Focus on Asthma and Allergy Origins. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3962. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083962
García-Serna AM, Martín-Orozco E, Hernández-Caselles T, Morales E. Prenatal and Perinatal Environmental Influences Shaping the Neonatal Immune System: A Focus on Asthma and Allergy Origins. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(8):3962. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083962
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcía-Serna, Azahara María, Elena Martín-Orozco, Trinidad Hernández-Caselles, and Eva Morales. 2021. "Prenatal and Perinatal Environmental Influences Shaping the Neonatal Immune System: A Focus on Asthma and Allergy Origins" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 8: 3962. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083962