The Moderating Roles of Sensation Seeking and Worry among Nature-Based Adventure Tourists
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Involvement and Knowledge
2.2. Theory of Planned Behavior
2.3. Sensation Seeking
2.4. Worry
3. Methods
3.1. Measurement Items
3.2. Survey Development
3.3. Sampling and Data Collection
3.4. Data Screening and Sample Profiles
4. Results
4.1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis
4.2. Structural Equation Modeling
4.3. Multigroup Moderation
5. Discussion
5.1. General Discussion
5.2. Implications
5.3. Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Constructs | Measurement Items |
---|---|
Knowledge | Compared to other people, I know a lot about hard adventure tourism. My friends consider me an expert regarding hard adventure tourism. I consider myself very experienced in the hard adventure tourism field. |
Involvement | I read hard adventure trip reviews from other travelers. I searched for hard adventure travel information on social media websites. I looked at hard adventure activity/attraction reviews of other travelers. I read other hard adventure travelers’ experiences and trips. |
Attitude | I think participating in a hard adventure tour is a positive behavior. I think participating in a hard adventure tour is a valuable behavior. I think participating in a hard adventure tour is a beneficial behavior. I think participating in a hard adventure tour is a necessary behavior. |
Subjective norms | Most people who are important to me agree that I participate in hard adventure tours. Most people who are important to me support that I participate in hard adventure tours. Most people who are important to me understand that I participate in hard adventure tours. Most people who are important to me recommend that I participate in hard adventure tours. |
Perceived behavioral control | I am confident that if I want, I can participate in a hard adventure tour. I am capable of joining a hard adventure tour. I have enough resources (e.g., money) to participate in a hardy tour. |
Behavioral intentions | I will make an effort to participate in a hard adventure tour in the future. I have an intention to participate in a hard adventure tour. I am willing to participate in a hard adventure tour. I am willing to save time and money to participate in a hard adventure tour. |
Sensation seeking | I would like to explore strange places. I would like to take a trip with no pre-planned routes or timetables. I get restless when I spend too much time at home. I prefer friends who are excitingly unpredictable. I like to do frightening things. I would like to try hard adventure tours. I like wild parties. I would love to have new and exciting experiences, even if they are illegal. |
Worry | I constantly worry that something may go wrong when I participate in a hard adventure tour. I worry that I’ll get lost or lose contact with my travel companions when I participate in a hard adventure tour. I worry that hard adventure tour is dangerous and scary. |
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INVO | KNOW | ATTI | NORM | CONT | INTEN | SENS | WORR | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
INVO | 0.892 a | |||||||
KNOW | 0.574 b | 0.898 | ||||||
ATTI | 0.537 | 0.440 | 0.769 | |||||
NORM | 0.345 | 0.397 | 0.454 | 0.784 | ||||
CONT | 0.650 | 0.530 | 0.666 | 0.332 | 0.832 | |||
INTEN | 0.675 | 0.565 | 0.742 | 0.362 | 0.819 | 0.873 | ||
SENS | 0.577 | 0.402 | 0.677 | 0.210 | 0.726 | 0.792 | 0.782 | |
WORR | −0.132 | −0.333 | −0.183 | −0.277 | −0.224 | −0.213 | −0.094 | 0.860 |
AVE | 0.795 | 0.806 | 0.592 | 0.614 | 0.692 | 0.763 | 0.611 | 0.740 |
CR | 0.940 | 0.926 | 0.813 | 0.861 | 0.870 | 0.928 | 0.824 | 0.895 |
Standardized Estimate | t-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hypothesis 1: Involvement | → | Knowledge | 0.581 | 10.164 *** |
Hypothesis 2: Involvement | → | Attitude | 0.461 | 5.896 *** |
Hypothesis 3: Involvement | → | Perceived control | 0.540 | 7.553 *** |
Hypothesis 4: Knowledge | → | Attitude | 0.199 | 2.713 ** |
Hypothesis 5: Knowledge | → | Perceived control | 0.236 | 3.711 *** |
Hypothesis 6: Attitude | → | Behavioral intentions | 0.392 | 7.152 *** |
Hypothesis 7: Subjective norms | → | Behavioral intentions | 0.019 | 0.464 |
Hypothesis 8: Perceived control | → | Behavioral intentions | 0.620 | 9.834 *** |
Goodness-of-fit statistics:χ2 = 382.427, df = 180, χ2/df = 2.125, RMSEA = 0.063, CFI = 0.957, IFI = 0.958, TLI = 0.950, NFI = 0.923, PGFI = 0.688 *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01 | Total variance explained: R2 of INTEN = 0.752 R2 of CONT = 0.495 R2 of ATTI = 0.359 R2 of KNOW = 0.338 | Total impact on behavioral intentions: INVO = 0.646 KNOW = 0.224 ATTI = 0.392 NORM = 0.019 CONT = 0.620 |
Indirect Effect of | On | ||
---|---|---|---|
ATTI | CONT | INTEN | |
INVO | 0.116 ** | 0.137 ** | 0.646 ** |
KNOW | - | - | 0.224 ** |
Sensation seeking—measurement-invariance model for high (n = 255) and low (n = 32) | ||||||||||
Models | χ2 | df | △χ2 | Full-metric invariance | ||||||
Nonrestricted model | 608.681 | 348 | △χ2 (21) = 35.408, p = < 0.05 | Not supported | ||||||
Full-metric invariance | 644.089 | 369 | ||||||||
Model fit statistics for the nonrestricted model: RMSEA = 0.051, CFI = 0.942, TLI = 0.931, IFI = 0.943. | ||||||||||
Model fit statistics for the full-metric model: RMSEA = 0.051, CFI = 0.939, TLI = 0.931, IFI = 0.940. | ||||||||||
Sensation seeking—structural-invariance model for high (n = 255) and low (n = 32) | ||||||||||
Paths | High | Low | Nested model | Chi-square difference test | ||||||
β | t-values | β | t-values | (equally restricted) | ||||||
H9a: IN → KN | 0.586 | 9.454 *** | 0.826 | 4.278 *** | χ2 (363) = 699.499 | △χ2 (1) = 1.725, p = > 0.10 | ||||
H9b: IN → AT | 0.277 | 3.247 ** | 0.928 | 2.907 ** | χ2 (363) = 701.679 | △χ2 (1) = 3.905, p = < 0.05 | ||||
H9c: IN → CO | 0.362 | 4.866 *** | 1.310 | 3.396 *** | χ2 (363) = 706.814 | △χ2 (1) = 9.040, p = < 0.01 | ||||
H9d: KN → AT | 0.326 | 3.800 *** | −0.359 | −1.157 | χ2 (363) = 699.843 | △χ2 (1) = 2.069, p = < 0.10 | ||||
H9e: KN → CO | 0.408 | 5.452 *** | −0.719 | −2.140 * | χ2 (363) = 707.274 | △χ2 (1) = 9.500, p = < 0.01 | ||||
H9f: AT → INT | 0.341 | 5.343 *** | 0.764 | 6.006 *** | χ2 (363) = 704.959 | △χ2 (1) = 7.185, p = < 0.01 | ||||
H9g: NO → INT | 0.018 | 0.369 | 0.076 | 1.146 | - | - | ||||
H9h: CO → INT | 0.621 | 8.316 *** | 0.327 | 3.084 ** | χ2 (363) = 699.928 | △χ2 (1) = 2.154, p = > 0.01 | ||||
Baseline model fit: χ2 = 697.772, df = 362, χ2/df = 1.928, RMSEA = 0.057, CFI = 0.926, TLI =0.914, IFI = 0.927. |
Worry—measurement-invariance model for high (n = 169) and low (n = 118) | ||||||||||
Models | χ2 | df | △χ2 | Full-metric invariance | ||||||
Nonrestricted model | 507.661 | 348 | △χ2 (21) = 25.554, p = < 0.05 | Not supported | ||||||
Full-metric invariance | 533.215 | 369 | ||||||||
Model fit statistics for the nonrestricted model: RMSEA = 0.040, CFI = 0.965, TLI = 0.958, IFI = 0.966. | ||||||||||
Model fit statistics for the full-metric model: RMSEA = 0.040, CFI = 0.964, TLI = 0.959; IFI = 0.965. | ||||||||||
Worry—structural-invariance model for high (n = 169) and low (n = 118) | ||||||||||
Paths | High | Low | Nested model | Chi-square difference test | ||||||
β | t-values | β | t-values | (equally restricted) | ||||||
H10a: IN → KN | 0.522 | 6.680 *** | 0.618 | 7.114 *** | χ2 (363) = 597.853 | △χ2 (1) = 6.674, p = < 0.05 | ||||
H10b: IN → AT | 0.349 | 3.507 *** | 0.670 | 5.143 *** | χ2 (363) = 600.082 | △χ2 (1) = 8.903, p = < 0.01 | ||||
H10c: IN → CO | 0.476 | 7.649 *** | 0.669 | 5.635 *** | χ2 (363) = 594.500 | △χ2 (1) = 3.321, p = < 0.10 | ||||
H10d: KN → AT | 0.213 | 2.098 * | 0.047 | 0.439 | χ2 (363) = 592.401 | △χ2 (1) = 1.222, p = > 0.10 | ||||
H10e: KN → CO | 0.249 | 2.406 * | 0.118 | 1.297 | χ2 (363) = 593.051 | △χ2 (1) = 1.872, p = > 0.10 | ||||
H10f: AT → INT | 0.379 | 5.167 *** | 0.424 | 4.592 *** | χ2 (363) = 591.239 | △χ2 (1) = 0.060, p = > 0.10 | ||||
H10g: NO → INT | 0.019 | 0.300 | 0.018 | 0.288 | - | - | ||||
H10h: CO → INT | 0.630 | 7.861 *** | 0.559 | 5.658 *** | χ2 (363) = 591.291 | △χ2 (1) = 0.112, p = > 0.10 | ||||
Baseline model fit: χ2 = 591.179, df = 362, χ2/df = 1.633, RMSEA = 0.047, CFI = 0.950, TLI =0.942, IFI = 0.951. |
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Kiatkawsin, K.; Bui, N.A.; Hrankai, R.; Jeong, K. The Moderating Roles of Sensation Seeking and Worry among Nature-Based Adventure Tourists. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042021
Kiatkawsin K, Bui NA, Hrankai R, Jeong K. The Moderating Roles of Sensation Seeking and Worry among Nature-Based Adventure Tourists. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(4):2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042021
Chicago/Turabian StyleKiatkawsin, Kiattipoom, Ngoc Anh Bui, Richard Hrankai, and Kwangmin Jeong. 2021. "The Moderating Roles of Sensation Seeking and Worry among Nature-Based Adventure Tourists" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 4: 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042021