Nutritional Status of Selenium and Its Association with Diet and Indoor Air Pollution among Pregnant Women in a Rural Area of Northern China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Study Participants
2.3. Questionnaire Survey
2.4. Blood Sample Collection
2.5. Blood Se Determination
2.6. Se Nutritional Status Determination
2.7. Definition of Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution
- (1)
- Cooking exposure: When the primary home cooking fuel used was coal, kitchen exposure was recorded as 2 if the woman cooked daily, or as 1 if the woman cooked occasionally; otherwise, it was recorded as 0.
- (2)
- Attached kitchen exposure: When the primary cooking fuel was coal and the kitchen was not separated from the living room or bedroom, the value was recorded as 1; otherwise, it was recorded as 0.
- (3)
- Heating exposure: When the primary heating fuel was coal, and a coal stove was used for heating in the living room or bedroom, the value was recorded as 2 if the house was almost never ventilated, or as 1 if the house was occasionally ventilated; otherwise, the value was recorded as 0.
2.8. Statistical Analyses
2.9. Ethical Statement
3. Results
3.1. Demographical Characteristics of the Study Participants
3.2. Se Concentration in Blood and Se Nutritional Status
3.3. Blood Concentrations of Se and Associated Factors
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Characteristic | n | Relative Low Blood Se a, n (%) | AOR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|
Age | |||
17–25 | 76 | 20 (26.3) | 0.54 (0.23, 1.26) |
25–30 | 71 | 16 (22.5) | 0.50 (0.21, 1.22) |
30–43 | 67 | 24 (35.8) | 1 |
Education | |||
Lower than junior high school | 160 | 49 (30.6) | 1.63 (0.60, 4.42) |
High school and above | 54 | 11 (20.4) | 1 |
Occupation | |||
Farmer | 178 | 53 (29.8) | 1.13 (0.35, 3.65) |
Others | 36 | 7 (19.4) | 1 |
Per capita disposable cash of family (yuan/month) | |||
<500 | 159 | 47 (29.6) | 0.85 (0.36, 2.02) |
≥500 | 55 | 13 (23.6) | 1 |
Gestational week/weeks | |||
1–13 | 62 | 12 (19.4) | 0.47 (0.21, 1.02) |
14–28 | 152 | 49 (32.2) | 1 |
Aquatic products | |||
<1 time/week | 196 | 52 (26.5) | 0.37 (0.12, 1.13) |
≥1 time/week | 18 | 9 (50.0) | 1 |
Poultry | |||
<1 time/week | 156 | 49 (31.4) | 0.85 (0.35, 2.11) |
≥1 time/week | 58 | 12 (20.7) | 1 |
Beef, pork, and mutton | |||
<1 time/week | 103 | 36 (35.0) | 2.25 (1.19, 5.23) |
≥1 time/week | 111 | 25 (22.5) | 1 |
Pickled vegetables | |||
<1 time/week | 122 | 28 (22.9) | 0.73 (0.38, 1.42) |
≥1 time/week | 92 | 33 (35.9) | 1 |
Vinegar | |||
<1 time/day | 84 | 15 (17.9) | 0.37 (0.17, 0.81) |
≥1 time/day | 130 | 46 (35.4) | 1 |
Dairy products | |||
<1 time/week | 114 | 32 (28.1) | 0.77 (0.39, 1.54) |
≥1 time/week | 100 | 29 (29.0) | 1 |
Passive smoke | |||
Yes | 114 | 35 (30.7) | 1.28 (0.66, 2.46) |
No | 100 | 26 (26.0) | 1 |
Exposure to indoor coal pollution | |||
Yes | 126 | 39 (31.0) | 1.30 (0.61, 2.75) |
No | 88 | 22 (25.0) | 1 |
References
- Rayman, M.P. Selenium and human health. Lancet 2012, 379, 1256–1268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Habibi, N.; Grieger, J.A.; Bianco-Miotto, T. A Review of the Potential Interaction of Selenium and Iodine on Placental and Child Health. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2678. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, P.J.; Yao, A.; Ma, L.; Chen, X.Y.; Yu, S.L.; Liu, Y.; Hou, Y.X. Associations of Serum Selenium Levels in the First Trimester of Pregnancy with the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Preterm Birth: A Preliminary Cohort Study. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2021, 199, 527–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bizerea, T.O.; Dezsi, S.G.; Marginean, O.; Stroescu, R.; Rogobete, A.; Bizerea-Spiridon, O.; Ilie, C. The Link Between Selenium, Oxidative Stress and Pregnancy Induced Hypertensive Disorders. Clin. Lab. 2018, 64, 1593–1610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Sheikh, Y.A.; Ghneim, H.K.; Alharbi, A.F.; Alshebly, M.M.; Aljaser, F.S.; Aboul-Soud, M.A.M. Molecular and biochemical investigations of key antioxidant/oxidant molecules in Saudi patients with recurrent miscarriage. Exp. Ther. Med. 2019, 18, 4450–4460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martín, I.; Gibert, M.J.; Pintos, C.; Noguera, A.; Besalduch, A.; Obrador, A. Oxidative stress in mothers who have conceived fetus with neural tube defects: The role of aminothiols and selenium. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 23, 507–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, M.; Guo, D.; Gu, H.; Zhang, L.; Lv, S. Selenium and Preeclampsia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2016, 171, 283–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rayman, M.P.; Bath, S.C.; Westaway, J.; Williams, P.; Mao, J.; Vanderlelie, J.J.; Perkins, A.V.; Redman, C.W. Selenium status in U.K. pregnant women and its relationship with hypertensive conditions of pregnancy. Br. J. Nutr. 2015, 113, 249–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thomson, C.D. Assessment of requirements for selenium and adequacy of selenium status: A review. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 58, 391–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pappas, A.C.; Zoidis, E.; Chadio, S.E. Maternal Selenium and Developmental Programming. Antioxidants 2019, 8, 145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kilinc, M.; Coskun, A.; Bilge, F.; Imrek, S.S.; Atli, Y. Serum reference levels of selenium, zinc and copper in healthy pregnant women at a prenatal screening program in southeastern Mediterranean region of Turkey. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. Organ Soc. Miner. Trace Elem. (GMS) 2010, 24, 152–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Duntas, L.H. Selenium and at-risk pregnancy: Challenges and controversies. Thyroid. Res. 2020, 13, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dinh, Q.T.; Cui, Z.; Huang, J.; Tran, T.A.T.; Wang, D.; Yang, W.; Zhou, F.; Wang, M.; Yu, D.; Liang, D. Selenium distribution in the Chinese environment and its relationship with human health: A review. Environ. Int. 2018, 112, 294–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tan, J.; Zhu, W.; Wang, W.; Li, R.; Hou, S.; Wang, D.; Yang, L. Selenium in soil and endemic diseases in China. Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 284, 227–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, L.; Ling, H. National Neural Tube Defects Prevention Program in China. Food Nutr. Bull. 2008, 29, S196–S204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cengiz, B.; Söylemez, F.; Oztürk, E.; Cavdar, A.O. Serum zinc, selenium, copper, and lead levels in women with second-trimester induced abortion resulting from neural tube defects: A preliminary study. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2004, 97, 225–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guijian, L.; Liugen, Z.; Duzgoren-Aydin, N.S.; Lianfen, G.; Junhua, L.; Zicheng, P. Health effects of arsenic, fluorine, and selenium from indoor burning of Chinese coal. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2007, 189, 89–106. [Google Scholar]
- Mestl, H.E.; Aunan, K.; Seip, H.M.; Wang, S.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, D. Urban and rural exposure to indoor air pollution from domestic biomass and coal burning across China. Sci. Total Environ. 2007, 377, 12–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sansone, G.; Fong, G.T.; Yan, M.; Meng, G.; Craig, L.; Xu, S.S.; Quah, A.C.K.; Wu, C.; Feng, G.; Jiang, Y. Secondhand smoke exposure and support for smoke-free policies in cities and rural areas of China from 2009 to 2015: A population-based cohort study (the ITC China Survey). BMJ Open 2019, 9, e031891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lewandowska, M.; Sajdak, S.; Lubiński, J. Serum Selenium Level in Early Healthy Pregnancy as a Risk Marker of Pregnancy Induced Hypertension. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jin, L.; Liu, J.; Ye, B.; Ren, A. Concentrations of selected heavy metals in maternal blood and associated factors in rural areas in Shanxi Province, China. Environ. Int. 2014, 66, 157–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Iyengar, G.V. Reevaluation of the trace element content in Reference Man. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 1998, 51, 545–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iyengar, G.V. Reference values for the concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, I, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn in selected human tissues and body fluids. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 1987, 12, 263–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hays, S.M.; Macey, K.; Nong, A.; Aylward, L.L. Biomonitoring Equivalents for selenium. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. RTP 2014, 70, 333–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z.; Zhang, L.; Ye, R.; Pei, L.; Liu, J.; Zheng, X.; Ren, A. Indoor air pollution from coal combustion and the risk of neural tube defects in a rural population in Shanxi Province, China. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2011, 174, 451–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawkes, W.C.; Alkan, F.Z.; Oehler, L. Absorption, distribution and excretion of selenium from beef and rice in healthy North American men. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 3434–3442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sun, H.; Chen, W.; Wang, D.; Jin, Y.; Chen, X.; Xu, Y. The effects of prenatal exposure to low-level cadmium, lead and selenium on birth outcomes. Chemosphere 2014, 108, 33–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhu, H.; Liu, Q.; Fan, Y.; Wang, N.; Liu, A.; Liu, H.; Ou-Yang, L.; et al. Effects of zinc, copper, and selenium on placental cadmium transport. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2004, 102, 39–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakayama, S.F.; Iwai-Shimada, M.; Oguri, T.; Isobe, T.; Takeuchi, A.; Kobayashi, Y.; Michikawa, T.; Yamazaki, S.; Nitta, H.; Kawamoto, T. Blood mercury, lead, cadmium, manganese and selenium levels in pregnant women and their determinants: The Japan Environment and Children’s Study (JECS). J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2019, 29, 633–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Combs, G.F., Jr. Selenium in global food systems. Br. J. Nutr. 2001, 85, 517–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhou, B.F.; Stamler, J.; Dennis, B.; Moag-Stahlberg, A.; Okuda, N.; Robertson, C.; Zhao, L.; Chan, Q.; Elliott, P. Nutrient intakes of middle-aged men and women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the late 1990s: The INTERMAP study. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2003, 17, 623–630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rayman, M.P. Food-chain selenium and human health: Emphasis on intake. Br. J. Nutr. 2008, 100, 254–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- He, Y.; Yang, X.; Xia, J.; Zhao, L.; Yang, Y. Consumption of meat and dairy products in China: A review. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2016, 75, 385–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ho, C.W.; Lazim, A.M.; Fazry, S.; Zaki, U.; Lim, S.J. Varieties, production, composition and health benefits of vinegars: A review. Food Chem. 2017, 221, 1621–1630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.; Crawford, M.A.; Chen, J.; Li, J.; Ghebremeskel, K.; Campbell, T.C.; Fan, W.; Parker, R.; Leyton, J. Fish consumption, blood docosahexaenoic acid and chronic diseases in Chinese rural populations. Comparative biochemistry and physiology. Part A Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2003, 136, 127–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finkelman, R.B.; Belkin, H.E.; Zheng, B. Health impacts of domestic coal use in China. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1999, 96, 3427–3431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zhang, Y.; Liu, G.J.; Zheng, L.G.; Chou, C.L.; Qi, C.C. Environmental Geochemistry of Selenium in Chinese Coal. Bull. Mineral. Petrol. Geochem. 2007, 26, 389–398. [Google Scholar]
- Hatfield, D.L.; Tsuji, P.A.; Carlson, B.A.; Gladyshev, V.N. Selenium and selenocysteine: Roles in cancer, health, and development. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2014, 39, 112–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Charab, M.A.; Abouzeinab, N.S.; Moustafa, M.E. The Protective Effect of Selenium on Oxidative Stress Induced by Waterpipe (Narghile) Smoke in Lungs and Liver of Mice. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2016, 174, 392–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Letsiou, S.; Nomikos, T.; Panagiotakos, D.; Pergantis, S.A.; Fragopoulou, E.; Antonopoulou, S.; Pitsavos, C.; Stefanadis, C. Serum total selenium status in Greek adults and its relation to age. The ATTICA study cohort. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2009, 128, 8–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lymbury, R.; Tinggi, U.; Griffiths, L.; Rosenfeldt, F.; Perkins, A.V. Selenium status of the Australian population: Effect of age, gender and cardiovascular disease. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2008, 126, S1–S10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Characteristic | Total n | Se Deficiency (< 90 µg/L) | Se Overnutrition (>130 µg/L) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | χ2 | p | n (%) | χ2 | p | ||
Total | 273 | 13 (4.8) | 65 (23.8) | ||||
County | |||||||
Yushe | 108 | 5 (4.6) | 4.64 | 0.098 | 26 (24.1) | 2.71 | 0.259 |
Dai | 107 | 8 (7.5) | 21 (19.6) | ||||
Xianghe | 58 | 0 | 18 (31.0) | ||||
Province | |||||||
Shanxi | 215 | 13 (6.0) | 3.68 | 0.055 | 47 (21.9) | 2.12 | 0.145 |
Hebei | 58 | 0 | 18 (31.0) | ||||
Gestational weeks | |||||||
4–13 | 96 | 2 (2.1) | 2.34 | 0.126 | 26 (27.1) | 0.88 | 0.350 |
13–28 | 177 | 11 (6.2) | 39 (22.0) |
Characteristic | n a (%) | Non-Parametric Tests | Log-Linear Regression Model d | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR)/(μg/L) | pb | β | SE | p | ||
County | 0.001 | |||||
Yushe | 108 (39.6) | 112.65 (103.35, 119.04) | - | |||
Dai | 107 (39.2) | 113.94 (102.32, 127.32) | ||||
Xianghe | 58 (21.2) | 125.99 (114.20, 140.71) | ||||
Province | <0.001 | |||||
Shanxi | 215 (78.8) | 112.96 (102.57, 127.97) | −0.015 | 0.016 | 0.343 | |
Hebei | 58 (21.2) | 125.99 (114.20, 140.71) | 0 c | |||
Age | 0.581 | |||||
17–25 | 115 (42.1) | 118.69 (105.90, 127.96) | −0.001 | 0.013 | 0.929 | |
25–30 | 83 (30.8) | 117.71 (104.62, 131.78) | 0.005 | 0.012 | 0.696 | |
30–43 | 74 (27.1) | 114.05 (100.92, 130.66) | 0 c | |||
Education | 0.251 | |||||
Junior high school or less | 207 (75.5) | 117.35 (103.31, 128.59) | −0.003 | 0.012 | 0.806 | |
High school or more | 65 (24.5) | 117.35 (105.86, 133.83) | 0 c | |||
Occupation | 0.017 | |||||
Farmer | 214 (78.4) | 114.75 (103.52, 127.90) | −0.011 | 0.013 | 0.417 | |
Others | 58 (21.6) | 123.22 (109.13, 136.61) | 0 c | |||
Per capita disposable cash of family (yuan/month) | 0.015 | |||||
<500 | 169 (62.1) | 113.94 (102.45, 128.26) | −0.008 | 0.011 | 0.475 | |
≥500 | 103 (37.9) | 119.85 (106.20, 131.39) | 0 c | |||
Gestational week/weeks | 0.162 | |||||
1–13 | 96 (35.2) | 117.53 (107.48, 130.76) | 0.004 | 0.009 | 0.674 | |
14–28 | 177 (64.8) | 116.89 (101.10, 128.78) | 0 c | |||
Spontaneous abortion | 0.521 | |||||
Yes | 70 (25.9) | 115.51 (104.74, 128.57) | −0.008 | 0.011 | 0.445 | |
No | 200 (74.1) | 118.23 (104.05, 129.83) | 0 c | |||
Gravidity | 0.686 | |||||
1 | 102 (37.6) | 119.03 (104.59, 128.52) | −0.001 | 0.012 | 0.960 | |
≥2 | 169 (62.4) | 116.02 (103.87, 130.39) | 0 c | |||
Aquatic products | 0.071 | |||||
<1 time/week | 222 (81.3) | 115.99 (103.90, 128.77) | 0.007 | 0.013 | 0.572 | |
≥1 time/week | 51 (18.7) | 121.83 (102.87, 130.09) | 0 c | |||
Poultry | 0.004 | |||||
<1 time/week | 181 (66.5) | 112.85 (102.54, 128.04) | −0.002 | 0.010 | 0.878 | |
≥1 time/week | 91 (33.5) | 121.83 (111.03, 131.41) | 0 c | |||
Beef, pork, and mutton | 0.008 | |||||
<1 time/week | 111 (40.7) | 112.45 (100.20, 126.54) | −0.015 | 0.009 | 0.112 | |
≥1 time/week | 162 (59.3) | 118.96 (106.04, 131.02) | 0 c | |||
Pickled vegetables | 0.001 | |||||
<1 time/week | 170 (62.7) | 119.71 (107.53, 131.49) | 0.011 | 0.009 | 0.209 | |
≥1 time/week | 101 (37.3) | 111.21 (99.90, 126.60) | 0 c | |||
Dairy products | 0.983 | |||||
<1 time/week | 138 (50.5) | 117.35 (103.78, 129.23) | 0.010 | 0.009 | 0.263 | |
≥1 time/week | 135 (49.5) | 116.98 (105.12, 129.27) | 0 c | |||
Vinegar | 0.000 | |||||
<1 time/day | 136 (50.0) | 122.61 (109.29, 136.15) | 0.029 | 0.010 | 0.003 | |
≥1 time/day | 136 (50.0) | 110.89 (100.74, 124.54) | 0 c | |||
Exposure to passive smoking | 0.047 | |||||
Yes | 134 (49.1) | 112.95 (103.10, 127.42) | −0.016 | 0.008 | 0.056 | |
No | 139 (50.9) | 119.20 (105.79, 132.54) | 0 c | |||
Exposure to indoor coal pollution | 0.049 | |||||
Yes | 142 (52.0) | 115.47 (102.46, 128.50) | −0.009 | 0.010 | 0.331 | |
No | 131 (48.0) | 118.72 (105.90, 130.09) | 0 c |
Characteristic | n a | Low Blood Se b, n (%) | COR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Province | ||||
Shanxi | 214 | 60 (28.0) | 2.89 (1.24, 6.71) | 1.49 (0.40, 5.55) |
Hebei | 56 | 6 (10.7) | 1 | 1 |
Age | ||||
17–25 | 113 | 22 (19.5) | 0.52 (0.27, 1.02) | 0.53 (0.24, 1.18) |
25–30 | 83 | 20 (24.1) | 0.66 (0.33, 1.33) | 0.70 (0.31, 1.57) |
30–43 | 74 | 24 (32.4) | 1 | 1 |
Education | ||||
Junior high school or lower | 205 | 54 (26.3) | 1.60 (0.80, 3.21) | 1.48 (0.59, 3.75) |
High school and above | 65 | 12 (18.5) | 1 | 1 |
Occupation | ||||
Farmer | 212 | 56 (26.4) | 1.74 (0.83, 3.67) | 1.07 (0.39, 2.93) |
Others | 58 | 10 (17.2) | 1 | 1 |
Per capita disposable cash of family (yuan/month) | ||||
<500 | 169 | 47 (27.8) | 1.60 (0.88, 2.89) | 0.86 (0.39, 1.90) |
≥500 | 101 | 19 (18.8) | 1 | 1 |
Gestational week/weeks | ||||
1–13 | 95 | 17 (17.9) | 0.53 (0.29, 0.99) | 0.67 (0.34, 1.32) |
14–28 | 175 | 49 (28.0) | 1 | 1 |
Aquatic products | ||||
<1 time/week | 222 | 55 (24.8) | 1.04 (0.52, 2.09) | 0.53 (0.21, 1.37) |
≥1 time/week | 48 | 11 (22.9) | 1 | 1 |
Poultry | ||||
<1 time/week | 180 | 50 (27.8) | 1.84 (0.98, 3.45) | 0.80 (0.36, 1.77) |
≥1 time/week | 90 | 16 (17.8) | 1 | 1 |
Beef, pork, and mutton | ||||
<1 time/week | 111 | 37 (33.3) | 2.11 (1.21, 3.68) | 2.26 (1.15, 4.44) |
≥1 time/week | 159 | 29 (18.2) | 1 | 1 |
Pickled vegetables | ||||
<1 time/week | 170 | 31 (18.2) | 0.40 (0.23, 0.71) | 0.60 (0.32, 1.11) |
≥1 time/week | 100 | 35 (35.0) | 1 | 1 |
Vinegar | ||||
<1 time/day | 135 | 20 (14.8) | 0.35 (0.19, 0.62) | 0.39 (0.19, 0.80) |
≥1 time/day | 135 | 46 (34.1) | 1 | |
Dairy products | ||||
<1 time/week | 137 | 35 (25.5) | 1.14 (0.66, 1.97) | 0.86 (0.45, 1.64) |
≥1 time/week | 133 | 31 (23.3) | 1 | |
Passive smoker | ||||
Yes | 136 | 38 (27.9) | 1.44 (0.83, 2.50) | 1.41 (0.76, 2.60) |
No | 134 | 28 (20.9) | 1 | 1 |
Exposure to indoor coal pollution | ||||
Yes | 140 | 40 (28.6) | 1.56 (0.90, 2.73) | 1.18 (0.59, 2.36) |
No | 130 | 26 (20.0) | 1 | 1 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Liu, J.; Jin, L.; Ren, A. Nutritional Status of Selenium and Its Association with Diet and Indoor Air Pollution among Pregnant Women in a Rural Area of Northern China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 12090. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212090
Liu J, Jin L, Ren A. Nutritional Status of Selenium and Its Association with Diet and Indoor Air Pollution among Pregnant Women in a Rural Area of Northern China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(22):12090. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212090
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Jiahe, Lei Jin, and Aiguo Ren. 2021. "Nutritional Status of Selenium and Its Association with Diet and Indoor Air Pollution among Pregnant Women in a Rural Area of Northern China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 22: 12090. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212090