Pesticide Use, Perceived Health Risks and Management in Ethiopia and in Hungary: A Comparative Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design, Study Area and Source Population
2.2. Sample Size and Sampling
2.3. Data Collection Procedure
2.4. Data Collection Instrument
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
3.2. Types of Pesticides Used
3.3. Knowledge of and Attitude to Pesticide Products
3.4. Practice of Pesticide Use, Preventive Measures and Pesticide Residues Disposal System
3.5. Factors Determining Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Related to Pesticide Use
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Domains | Descriptions |
---|---|
Demographic questions | Gender; age; education level, occupation, and nationality |
Knowledge and attitude related questions | Knowledge about pesticide products; knowledge of routes of pesticide exposure; perception about pesticide toxicity; opinion about cost of pesticides; perception about environmental pesticide pollution; and perception about health risks of pesticides |
Experienced practices related questions | Types of pesticides used; illegal import of pesticide products; pesticide management system, pesticide disposal system; training about health risks of pesticides, use of personal protective equipment; and experience of pesticide poisoning |
Characteristics | Categories | N (%) | Hungary (n = 92) | Ethiopia (n = 234) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | (%) | N | (%) | ||||
Sex | Male | 255 (78) | 65 | 71 | 190 | 81 | 0.038 |
Female | 71 (22) | 27 | 29 | 44 | 19 | ||
Age | 18–29 | 50 (16) | 11 | 12 | 39 | 17 | <0.001 |
30–39 | 141 (43) | 28 | 30 | 113 | 48 | ||
40–49 | 89 (27) | 25 | 28 | 64 | 27 | ||
50–60 | 46 (14) | 28 | 30 | 18 | 8 | ||
Education | College diploma | 91 (28) | 12 | 13 | 79 | 34 | <0.001 |
University BSc | 170 (52) | 29 | 32 | 141 | 60 | ||
University MSc and above | 65 (20) | 51 | 55 | 14 | 6 |
Pesticide Type | Active Ingredient | WHO Toxicity Class | Chemical Group | Hungary N * (%) | Ethiopia N * (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insecticide | Malathion | III | Organophosphate | - | 199 (85.0) |
Herbicide | 2, 4-D | II | Phenoxy alkonates | 19 (20.7) | 182 (77.8) |
Insecticide | Diazinon | II | Organophosphate | 7 (7.6) | 138 (59.0) |
Herbicide | Glyphosate | III | Glycine derivative | 89 (96.7) | 114 (48.7) |
Insecticide | Deltamethrin | II | Pyrethroids | 68 (73.9) | 69 (29.5) |
Insecticide | Dimethoate | II | Organophosphate | 24 (26.1) | 67 (28.6) |
Insecticide | Endosulfan | II | Organochlorine | 4 (4.3) | 61 (26.1) |
Insecticide | Sevin | II | Carbamate | - | 46 (19.7) |
Fungicide | Chloronitrile | III | Chloronitrile | 28 (30.4) | 33 (14.1) |
Insecticide | DDT | II | Organochlorine | - | 13 (5.6) |
Herbicide | Pendimethalin | III | Dinitroaniline | 61 (66.3) | - |
Fungicide | Epoxiconazole | II | Triazole | 53 (57.6) | - |
Fungicide | Tetraconazole | IV | Triazole | 44 (47.8) | - |
Characteristics | Categories | N (%) | Hungary (n = 92) | Ethiopia (n = 234) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | (%) | N | (%) | ||||
Knowledge about pesticide products | Good | 239 (73) | 85 | 92 | 154 | 66 | <0.001 |
Poor | 87 (27) | 7 | 8 | 80 | 32 | ||
Knowledge about routes of pesticide exposure | Good | 221 (68) | 85 | 92 | 136 | 58 | <0.001 |
Poor | 105 (32) | 7 | 8 | 98 | 42 | ||
Attitude toward pesticide toxicity | Disagree | 31 (10) | 11 | 12 | 20 | 9 | <0.001 |
Undecided | 76 (23) | 34 | 37 | 42 | 18 | ||
Agree | 140 (43) | 25 | 27 | 115 | 49 | ||
Strongly agree | 79 (24) | 22 | 24 | 57 | 24 | ||
Opinion about the cost of pesticide products | Moderately expensive | 33 (10) | 13 | 14 | 20 | 9 | 0.309 |
Very expensive | 122 (37) | 34 | 37 | 88 | 38 | ||
Extremely expensive | 171 (53) | 45 | 49 | 126 | 54 | ||
Attitude toward environmental pesticide pollution (water, food, air, and soil) | Disagree | 54 (17) | 24 | 26 | 30 | 13 | 0.001 |
Undecided | 25 (8) | 12 | 13 | 13 | 6 | ||
Agree | 109 (33) | 25 | 27 | 84 | 36 | ||
Strongly agree | 138 (42) | 31 | 34 | 107 | 46 | ||
Perceived health risk of pesticide use | Disagree | 64 (20) | 29 | 32 | 35 | 15 | <0.001 |
Undecided | 37 (11) | 18 | 20 | 19 | 8 | ||
Agree | 148 (45) | 25 | 27 | 123 | 53 | ||
Strongly agree | 77 (24) | 20 | 22 | 57 | 24 |
Characteristics | Categories | N (%) | Hungary (n = 92) | Ethiopia (n = 234) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | (%) | N | (%) | ||||
Effectiveness of the pesticide management system | Ineffective | 142 (44) | 11 | 12 | 131 | 56 | <0.001 |
Somewhat effective | 68 (21) | 13 | 14 | 55 | 24 | ||
Moderately effective | 31 (9) | 16 | 17 | 15 | 6 | ||
Effective | 85 (26) | 52 | 57 | 33 | 14 | ||
Illegal import of pesticides | Yes | 184 (56) | 76 | 83 | 108 | 46 | <0.001 |
No | 142 (44) | 16 | 17 | 126 | 54 | ||
Training of farmers about the health risk of pesticides | Rarely | 202 (62) | 13 | 14 | 189 | 81 | <0.001 |
Sometime | 64 (20) | 36 | 39 | 28 | 12 | ||
Fully trained | 60 (18) | 43 | 47 | 17 | 7 | ||
Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by farmers | Rarely | 193 (59) | 15 | 16 | 178 | 76 | <0.001 |
Sometimes | 60 (19) | 39 | 43 | 21 | 9 | ||
Very often | 73 (22) | 38 | 41 | 35 | 15 | ||
Experience of pesticide poisoning among farmers | No | 223 (68) | 86 | 93 | 137 | 59 | <0.001 |
Yes | 103 (32) | 6 | 7 | 97 | 41 |
Explanatory Variables | Outcome Variables | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Knowledge about Pesticides Products | Knowledge about Routes of Pesticide Exposure | Attitude towards Pesticide Toxicity | Opinion about the Cost of Pesticide Products | Attitude towards Environmental Pesticide Pollution | Perceived Health Risk of Pesticide Use | ||
Country (1 = Hungary, 2 = Ethiopia) | β | −1.78 | −1.75 | 0.60 | 0.15 | 0.75 | 0.77 |
SE | 0.46 | 0.45 | 0.27 | 0.29 | 0.28 | 0.28 | |
p-value | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.028 * | 0.614 | 0.007 ** | 0.006 ** | |
Sex (1 = Male, 2 = Female) | β | 0.214 | 0.10 | 1.29 | −0.58 | 0.07 | 0.08 |
SE | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.29 | 0.27 | 0.27 | 0.27 | |
p-value | 0.543 | 0.773 | 0.000 *** | 0.033 * | 0.800 | 0.761 | |
Age (1 = 18–29, 2 = 30–39, 3 = 40–49, 4 = 50–60) | β | −0.031 | 0.21 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.12 |
SE | 0.16 | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.12 | |
p-value | 0.850 | 0.195 | 0.912 | 0.249 | 0.803 | 0.353 | |
Education (1 = diploma, 2 = BSc, 3 = MSc and over) | β | 0.085 | 0.49 | −0.25 | −0.22 | −0.01 | −0.19 |
SE | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.17 | |
p-value | 0.703 | 0.026 * | 0.143 | 0.216 | 0.941 | 0.257 |
Explanatory Variables | Outcome Variables | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effectiveness of Pesticide Management System | Illegal Import of Pesticides | Training of Farmers about the Health Risk of Pesticides | Use of PPE by Farmers | Experience of Pesticide Poisoning among Farmers | ||
Country (1 = Hungary, 2 = Ethiopia) | β | −2.33 | −1.44 | −3.03 | −2.19 | 2.04 |
SE | 0.30 | 0.34 | 0.34 | 0.30 | 0.47 | |
p-value | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | |
Sex (1 = Male, 2 = Female) | β | 0.83 | 0.14 | 0.58 | 0.19 | −0.55 |
SE | 0.27 | 0.31 | 0.30 | 0.29 | 0.36 | |
p-value | 0.002** | 0.656 | 0.055 | 0.500 | 0.120 | |
Age (1 = 18–29, 2 = 30–39, 3 = 40–49, 4 = 50–60) | β | −0.10 | 0.02 | −0.27 | 0.06 | 0.01 |
SE | 0.13 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.16 | |
p-value | 0.444 | 0.885 | 0.071 | 0.642 | 0.936 | |
Education (1 = diploma, 2 = BSc, 3 = MSc and over) | β | −0.13 | 0.39 | −0.01 | −0.17 | −0.42 |
SE | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.22 | |
p-value | 0.474 | 0.053 | 0.967 | 0.371 | 0.057 |
Country | Outcome Variables (n = 326) | Odds Ratio [95%, CI] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude Odds Ratio [COR] | Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] † | |||||
Knowledge about pesticide products | ||||||
Poor | Good | |||||
Hungary | 7 (8) | 85 (92) | 6.31 [2.79–14.28] *** | 5.93 [2.42–14.55] *** | ||
Ethiopia | 80 (34) | 154 (66) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Knowledge about routes of pesticide exposure | ||||||
Poor | Good | |||||
Hungary | 7 (8) | 85 (92) | 8.75 [3.88–19.73] *** | 5.78 [2.41–13.85] *** | ||
Ethiopia | 98 (42) | 136 (58) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Attitude toward pesticide toxicity | ||||||
Disagree | Undecided | Agree | Strongly agree | |||
Hungarian | 11 (12) | 34 (37) | 25 (27) | 22 (24) | 0.56 [0.36–0.88] * | 0.55 [0.32–0.94] * |
Ethiopian | 20 (8) | 42 (18) | 130 (49) | 42 (25) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Opinion about the cost of pesticides products | ||||||
Moderately expensive | Very expensive | Extremely expensive | ||||
Hungary | 13 (14) | 34 (37) | 45 (49) | 0.77 [0.48–1.22] | 0.86 [0.49–1.53] | |
Ethiopia | 20 (8) | 76 (38) | 138 (54) | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Attitude towards environmental pesticide pollution | ||||||
Disagree | Undecided | Agree | Strongly agree | |||
Hungary | 24 (26) | 12 (13) | 25 (27) | 31 (34) | 0.48 [0.31–0.76] *** | 0.47 [0.27–0.82] ** |
Ethiopia | 30 (13) | 13 (5) | 84 (36) | 107 (46) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Perceived health risk of pesticide use | ||||||
Disagree | Undecided | Agree | Strongly agree | |||
Hungary | 29 (32) | 18 (20) | 25 (27) | 20 (22) | 0.44 [0.28–0.69] *** | 0.46 [0.27–0.80] ** |
Ethiopia | 35 (15) | 19 (8) | 123 (53) | 57 (24) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Country | Outcome Variables (n = 326) | Odds Ratio [95%, CI] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude Odds Ratio [COR] | Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] † | |||||
Effectiveness of the pesticide management system | ||||||
Ineffective | Somewhat effective | Moderately effective | Effective | |||
Hungary | 11 (12) | 13 (14) | 16 (17) | 52 (57) | 9.15 [5.57–15.04] *** | 10.23 [5.68–18.46] *** |
Ethiopia | 131 (56) | 55 (24) | 15 (6) | 33 (14) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Illegal import of pesticides | ||||||
No | Yes | |||||
Hungary | 16 (17) | 76 (83) | 5.54 [3.05–10.07] *** | 4.23 [2.16–8.31] *** | ||
Ethiopia | 126 (54) | 108 (46) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Training of farmers about the health risk of pesticide | ||||||
Rarely | Sometimes | Fully trained | ||||
Hungary | 13 (14) | 36 (39) | 43 (47) | 17.86 [10.32–30.91] *** | 20.74 [10.61–40.57] *** | |
Ethiopia | 189 (81) | 28 (12) | 17 (7) | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Use of personal protective equipment by farmers | ||||||
Rarely | Sometimes | Very often | ||||
Hungary | 15 (16) | 39 (43) | 38 (41) | 8.27 [5.08–13.48] *** | 8.95 [4.94–16.28] *** | |
Ethiopia | 178 (76) | 21 (9) | 35 (15) | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Experience of pesticide poisoning among farmers | ||||||
No | Yes | |||||
Hungary | 86 (93) | 6 (7) | 0.10 [0.04–0.24] *** | 0.13 [0.05–0.33] *** | ||
Ethiopia | 137 (59) | 97 (41) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
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Tessema, R.A.; Nagy, K.; Ádám, B. Pesticide Use, Perceived Health Risks and Management in Ethiopia and in Hungary: A Comparative Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10431. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910431
Tessema RA, Nagy K, Ádám B. Pesticide Use, Perceived Health Risks and Management in Ethiopia and in Hungary: A Comparative Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10431. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910431
Chicago/Turabian StyleTessema, Roba Argaw, Károly Nagy, and Balázs Ádám. 2021. "Pesticide Use, Perceived Health Risks and Management in Ethiopia and in Hungary: A Comparative Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 19: 10431. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910431