The Impact of Parental Stress on Italian Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms during COVID-19 Quarantine
1.2. Parental Stress and Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms
1.3. The Mediation Role of Parents’ Expressive Suppression
1.4. The Current Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Adolescents’ Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in response to the Quarantine at T1, T2, and T3
2.2.2. Parental Stress at T2
2.2.3. Parents’ Expressive Suppression at T2
2.2.4. Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms at T3
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Attrition Analyses
3.2. Adolescents’ Anxiety and Depression Symptoms
3.3. Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations
3.4. The Effect of Sociodemographic Variables on Expressive Suppression and Adolescents’ Anxiety and Depression Symptoms
3.5. Mediation Analyses
3.6. Supplementary Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Complete Group (n = 288) | Attrition Group (n = 763) | Test a | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | ||
T1 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine | 2.91 | 2.46 | 2.85 | 2.52 | 0.392 |
T2 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine | 3.31 | 2.44 | 2.90 | 2.30 | 1.797 |
T1 adolescents’ depression to quarantine | 2.18 | 1.73 | 2.08 | 1.67 | 0.829 |
T2 adolescents’ depression to quarantine | 2.57 | 1.71 | 2.59 | 1.67 | −0.090 |
T2 parental stress | 19.02 | 7.18 | 18.78 | 7.64 | 0.339 |
T2 expressive suppression | 13.17 | 5.11 | 12.73 | 4.44 | 0.919 |
Parents’ age | 46.50 | 4.65 | 46.39 | 5.72 | 0.274 |
Adolescent’s age | 13.89 | 2.15 | 14.22 | 2.29 | −2.114 * |
N | % | N | % | ||
Parents’ gender (female) | 275 | 95.5 | 653 | 85.6 | 19.842 *** |
Monthly family income (euros) | 3.136 | ||||
Up to 999 | 4 | 4.5 | 9 | 3.8 | |
Between 1000 and 1999 | 18 | 20.2 | 65 | 27.1 | |
Between 2000 and 3999 | 29 | 32.6 | 60 | 25.0 | |
Between 3000 and 4999 | 27 | 30.3 | 81 | 33.8 | |
5000 or more | 11 | 12.4 | 25 | 10.4 | |
Education level | 1.017 | ||||
Primary school | 21 | 7.3 | 70 | 9.2 | |
Secondary school | 133 | 46.2 | 339 | 44.5 | |
Undergraduate | 94 | 32.6 | 245 | 32.2 | |
Doctoral or master | 40 | 13.9 | 107 | 14.1 | |
Mother’s current employment situation | 8.666 | ||||
Self-employed | 40 | 13.9 | 92 | 12.2 | |
Part-time | 73 | 25.3 | 178 | 23.5 | |
Full-time | 59 | 20.5 | 200 | 26.5 | |
Unemployed | 20 | 6.9 | 45 | 6.0 | |
Lost job due to COVID-19 | 19 | 6.6 | 27 | 3.6 | |
Home-working | 54 | 18.8 | 147 | 19.4 | |
Other | 23 | 8.0 | 67 | 8.9 | |
Father’s current employment situation | 8.706 | ||||
Self-employed | 76 | 27.1 | 214 | 28.7 | |
Part-time | 13 | 4.6 | 45 | 6.0 | |
Full-time | 133 | 47.5 | 326 | 43.7 | |
Unemployed | 8 | 2.9 | 25 | 3.4 | |
Lost job due to COVID-19 | 8 | 2.9 | 16 | 2.1 | |
Home-working | 42.0 | 15.0 | 103.0 | 13.8 | |
Other | 0 | 0 | 17.0 | 2.3 | |
Adolescents’ gender (female) | 130.0 | 45.1 | 386.0 | 50.6 | 2.486 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Parent age | – | |||||||||||
2. Adolescent age | 0.31 ** | – | ||||||||||
3. T1 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine | 0.06 | −0.04 | – | |||||||||
4. T2 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.57 ** | – | ||||||||
5. T3 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine | −0.02 | −0.08 | 0.46 ** | 0.56 ** | – | |||||||
6. T1 adolescents’ depression to quarantine | 0.04 | −0.03 | 0.61 ** | 0.35 ** | 0.31 ** | – | ||||||
7. T2 adolescents’ depression to quarantine | 0.01 | −0.14 * | 0.40 ** | 0.54 ** | 0.34 ** | 0.49 ** | – | |||||
8. T3 adolescents’ depression to quarantine | −0.04 | −0.15 * | 0.40 ** | 0.50 ** | 0.62 ** | 0.39 ** | 0.58 ** | – | ||||
9. T2 parental stress | −0.07 | −0.05 | 0.27 ** | 0.27 ** | 0.25 ** | 0.19 ** | 0.22 ** | 0.20 ** | – | |||
10. T2 expressive suppression | 0.06 | −0.01 | 0.13 * | 0.15 * | 0.18 ** | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.17 ** | 0.17 ** | – | ||
11. T3 adolescents’ anxiety | −0.04 | −0.19 ** | 0.38 ** | 0.28 ** | 0.42 ** | 0.31 *** | 0.20 ** | 0.35 ** | 0.35 ** | 0.23 ** | – | |
12. T3 adolescents’ depression | −0.01 | −0.13 * | 0.34 ** | 0.36 ** | 0.51 ** | 0.33 ** | 0.40 ** | 0.60 ** | 0.41 ** | 0.27 ** | 0.67 ** | – |
M | 46.50 | 13.89 | 2.91 | 3.31 | 2.93 | 2.18 | 2.57 | 2.36 | 19.02 | 13.17 | 6.26 | 5.94 |
SD | 4.65 | 2.15 | 2.47 | 2.44 | 230 | 1.73 | 1.70 | 1.73 | 7.18 | 5.11 | 3.92 | 5.16 |
Paths | B | SE | p |
---|---|---|---|
DV: T3 Adolescents’ Anxiety (R2 = 0.283) | |||
T2 parental stress → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.140 | 0.031 | <0.000 |
T1 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.365 | 0.120 | 0.003 |
T2 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.115 | 0.111 | 0.303 |
T1 adolescents’ depression to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.221 | 0.161 | 0.171 |
T2 adolescents’ depression to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | −0.114 | 0.156 | 0.465 |
adolescent’s age → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | −0.311 | 0.097 | 0.002 |
parents’ gender → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 1.152 | 0.991 | 0.246 |
mother’s current employment status → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | −0.051 | 0.106 | 0.630 |
father’s current employment status → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.153 | 0.128 | 0.233 |
DV: T3 adolescents’ depression (R2 = 0.332) | |||
T2 parental stress → T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.222 | 0.039 | <0.000 |
T1 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.117 | 0.148 | 0.432 |
T2 adolescents’ anxiety to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.245 | 0.140 | 0.082 |
T1 adolescents’ depression to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.336 | 0.201 | 0.096 |
T2 adolescents’ depression to quarantine → T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.472 | 0.195 | 0.016 |
adolescent’s age → T3 adolescents’ depression | −0.223 | 0.122 | 0.069 |
parents’ gender → T3 adolescents’ depression | −0.185 | 1.273 | 0.885 |
parents’ education level → T3 adolescents’ depression | −0.933 | 0.321 | 0.004 |
mother’s current employment status → T3 adolescents’ depression | −0.081 | 0.132 | 0.540 |
Paths | Direct Effects | Indirect Effects | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | p | B | SE | 95% Bootstrapping CI | |
DV: T3 Adolescents’ Anxiety | ||||||
T2 parental stress →T2 expressive suppression | 0.127 | 0.046 | 0.007 | |||
T2 parental stress →T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.129 | 0.031 | <0.000 | |||
T2 expressive suppression → T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.087 | 0.041 | 0.034 | |||
T2 parental stress→ T2 expressive suppression →T3 adolescents’ anxiety | 0.011 | 0.007 | [0.001, 0.032] | |||
DV: T3 Adolescents’ Depression | ||||||
T2 parental stress →T2 expressive suppression | 0.125 | 0.046 | 0.007 | |||
T2 parental stress → T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.199 | 0.038 | <0.000 | |||
T2 expressive suppression → T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.180 | 0.050 | <0.001 | |||
T2 parental stress→ T2 expressive suppression →T3 adolescents’ depression | 0.023 | 0.011 | [0.006, 0.050] |
Model Fit Indices | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC | BIC | χ2 | df | CFI | TLI | RMSEA | 90%CI | SRMR | |
Hypothesized model for depression symptoms | 3343.42 | 3390.82 | 9.01 | 8 | 0.992 | 0.981 | 0.021 | [0.000, 0.075] | 0.023 |
Competing model for depression symptoms (switch X and M) | 3534.66 | 3582.05 | 51.47 | 8 | 0.743 | 0.390 | 0.139 | [0.104, 0.176] | 0.070 |
Hypothesized model for anxiety symptoms | 3122.18 | 3169.20 | 9.66 | 8 | 0.983 | 0.959 | 0.027 | [0.000, 0.079] | 0.026 |
Competing model for anxiety symptoms (switch X and M) | 3311.49 | 3358.51 | 51.24 | 8 | 0.687 | 0.257 | 0.140 | [0.105, 0.178] | 0.070 |
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Liang, Z.; Mazzeschi, C.; Delvecchio, E. The Impact of Parental Stress on Italian Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8074. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158074
Liang Z, Mazzeschi C, Delvecchio E. The Impact of Parental Stress on Italian Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(15):8074. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158074
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiang, Ziqin, Claudia Mazzeschi, and Elisa Delvecchio. 2021. "The Impact of Parental Stress on Italian Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 15: 8074. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158074