Did Affiliate Stigma Predict Affective and Behavioral Outcomes in Caregivers and Their Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Affiliate Stigma in Caregivers of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
1.2. Relationship between Affiliate Stigma and Depression in Caregivers of Children with ADHD
1.3. Relationship of Caregivers’ Affiliate Stigma with Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Children with ADHD
1.4. Aims of This Study
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Predictor: Affiliate Stigma
2.2.2. Outcomes: Caregivers’ Depression
2.2.3. Outcomes: Children’s Behavioral Problems
2.2.4. Covariates: Demographic Characteristics and ADHD Symptoms
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Affiliate Stigma’s Ability to Predict Depression in Caregivers of Children with ADHD
4.2. Affiliate Stigma’s Ability to Predict Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Children with ADHD
4.3. Implications
4.4. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | n (%) | Mean (SD) | Range |
---|---|---|---|
Baseline | |||
Caregivers | |||
Gender | |||
Female | 308 (80.6) | ||
Male | 74 (19.4) | ||
Age (years) | 43.1 (7.0) | 23–69 | |
Education of year (years) | 14.2 (3.2) | 0–28 | |
Marriage status | |||
Married or cohabited | 307 (80.4) | ||
Separated or divorced | 75 (19.6) | ||
Affiliate stigma | 37.4 (11.0) | 22–71 | |
Depression | 13.8 (9.6) | 0–45 | |
Children | |||
Gender | |||
Girl | 76 (19.9) | ||
Boy | 306 (80.1) | ||
Age (years) | 10.9 (3.2) | 6–18 | |
ADHD symptoms | 64.1 (7.7) | 50–80 | |
Affective problems | 64.1 (8.5) | 50–90 | |
Anxiety problems | 59.9 (7.8) | 50–77 | |
Somatic problems | 55.8 (8.7) | 50–100 | |
Oppositional defiant problems | 61.0 (8.5) | 50–80 | |
Conduct problems | 59.8 (8.6) | 50–88 | |
Follow-up | |||
Caregivers | |||
Depression | 14.4 (9.9) | 0–55 | |
Children | |||
Affective problems | 62.3 (8.7) | 50–95 | |
Anxiety problems | 59.0 (8.3) | 50–78 | |
Somatic problems | 55.3 (7.5) | 50–97 | |
Oppositional defiant problems | 60.1 (7.1) | 50–80 | |
Conduct problems | 58.9 (8.0) | 50–81 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
At baseline | 1. Affiliate stigma | - | |||||||||||||
2. ADHD symptoms | 0.254 | - | |||||||||||||
3. Depression | 0.508 | 0.227 | - | ||||||||||||
4. Affective problems | 0.350 | 0.455 | 0.382 | - | |||||||||||
5. Anxious problems | 0.354 | 0.348 | 0.324 | 0.615 | - | ||||||||||
6. Somatic problems | 0.111 | 0.137 | 0.164 | 0.404 | 0.277 | - | |||||||||
7. ODD problems | 0.288 | 0.608 | 0.290 | 0.452 | 0.329 | 0.162 | - | ||||||||
8. Conduct problems | 0.349 | 0.618 | 0.279 | 0.534 | 0.350 | 0.281 | 0.707 | - | |||||||
At follow-up | 9. Depression | 0.407 | 0.279 | 0.692 | 0.379 | 0.323 | 0.192 | 0.201 | 0.265 | - | |||||
10. Affective problems | 0.330 | 0.318 | 0.324 | 0.559 | 0.461 | 0.266 | 0.274 | 0.314 | 0.520 | - | |||||
11. Anxious problems | 0.262 | 0.210 | 0.215 | 0.413 | 0.576 | 0.274 | 0.173 | 0.227 | 0.374 | 0.645 | - | ||||
12. Somatic problems | 0.166 | 0.187 | 0.129 | 0.300 | 0.291 | 0.443 | 0.152 | 0.207 | 0.239 | 0.428 | 0.400 | - | |||
13. ODD problems | 0.248 | 0.393 | 0.219 | 0.333 | 0.257 | 0.178 | 0.582 | 0.497 | 0.354 | 0.515 | 0.409 | 0.189 | - | ||
14. Conduct problems | 0.297 | 0.451 | 0.199 | 0.353 | 0.261 | 0.169 | 0.459 | 0.688 | 0.358 | 0.499 | 0.385 | 0.229 | 0.701 | - |
Caregivers’ Depression at Follow-Up | Children’s Behavioral Problems at Follow-Up | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Affective Problems | Anxiety Problems | Somatic Problems | Oppositional Defiant Problems | Conduct Problems | ||||||||
Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | |
Baseline | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) | B (SE) |
caregivers | ||||||||||||
Affiliate stigma | 0.318 (0.042) *** | 0.048 (0.038) | 0.260 (0.038) *** | 0.119 (0.035) ** | 0.197 (0.037) *** | 0.113 (0.034) ** | 0.085 (0.031) ** | 0.187 (0.036) *** | 0.074 (0.032) * | 0.216 (0.035) *** | 0.058 (0.028) * | |
Depression | 0.651 (0.044) *** | |||||||||||
Children | ||||||||||||
Affective problems | 0.514 (0.046) *** | |||||||||||
Anxiety problems | 0.584 (0.047) *** | |||||||||||
Somatic problems | 0.522 (0.042) *** | |||||||||||
Oppositional defiant problems | 0.522 (0.042) *** | |||||||||||
Conduct problems | 0.594 (0.036) *** |
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Chang, C.-C.; Chen, Y.-M.; Hsiao, R.C.; Chou, W.-J.; Yen, C.-F. Did Affiliate Stigma Predict Affective and Behavioral Outcomes in Caregivers and Their Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147532
Chang C-C, Chen Y-M, Hsiao RC, Chou W-J, Yen C-F. Did Affiliate Stigma Predict Affective and Behavioral Outcomes in Caregivers and Their Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(14):7532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147532
Chicago/Turabian StyleChang, Chih-Cheng, Yu-Min Chen, Ray C. Hsiao, Wen-Jiun Chou, and Cheng-Fang Yen. 2021. "Did Affiliate Stigma Predict Affective and Behavioral Outcomes in Caregivers and Their Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 14: 7532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147532