Self-Medication-Related Behaviors and Poland’s COVID-19 Lockdown
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Characteristic | n | % |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Female | 544 | 53.7 |
Male | 469 | 46.3 |
Age (years) | ||
18–29 | 335 | 33.1 |
30–39 | 263 | 26.0 |
40–49 | 175 | 17.3 |
50–59 | 141 | 13.9 |
60+ | 99 | 9.8 |
Education | ||
Primary, lower secondary, vocational | 124 | 12.3 |
Secondary education | 531 | 52.4 |
Higher education | 358 | 35.3 |
Self-assessment of health | ||
Very good | 229 | 22.6 |
Good | 468 | 46.2 |
Moderate | 263 | 26.0 |
Poor | 42 | 4.1 |
Very poor | 11 | 1.1 |
Place of residence (population size) | ||
Village | 345 | 34.1 |
City of up to 19,999 | 110 | 10.9 |
City of 20,000–199,999 | 228 | 22.5 |
City of 200,000–499,999 | 198 | 19.5 |
City of over 500,000 | 132 | 13.0 |
Life satisfaction | ||
Satisfied | 754 | 75.3 |
Dissatisfied | 163 | 16.3 |
Hard to say | 84 | 8.4 |
Religiosity (frequency of participation in religious practices) | ||
Several times a week | 29 | 2.9 |
Once a week | 256 | 25.3 |
1–2 times a month | 133 | 13.1 |
Several times a year | 254 | 25.1 |
Once every few years | 87 | 8.6 |
Not at all | 254 | 25.1 |
Children (people under 18 years of age) in household | ||
0 | 414 | 45.0 |
1 | 366 | 39.8 |
2 | 109 | 11.8 |
3 | 28 | 3.0 |
4 | 3 | 0.3 |
Financial situation | ||
Very good | 78 | 7.7 |
Good | 368 | 36.3 |
Moderate | 465 | 45.9 |
Poor | 84 | 8.3 |
Very poor | 18 | 1.8 |
Appendix B
You Have Taken Medication for the Enhancement of Physical/Cognitive Performance | You Have Taken Prescription Medication without Consulting a Doctor | You Have Refrained from Consulting a Doctor Despite Having Worrying Symptoms | You Have Bought Prescription Medication Just in Case You Might Need It | You Have Talked a Doctor into Prescribing Medication | You Have Taken Medication as a Precaution against Becoming ill | |
You have taken medication for the enhancement of physical/cognitive performance | ||||||
You have taken prescription medication without consulting a doctor | 0.401 ** | |||||
You have refrained from consulting a doctor despite having worrying symptoms | 0.302 ** | 0.379 ** | ||||
You have bought prescription medication just in case you might need it | 0.334 ** | 0.347 ** | 0.260 ** | |||
You have talked a doctor into prescribing medication | 0.388 ** | 0.442 ** | 0.379 ** | 0.444 ** | ||
You have taken medication as a precaution against becoming ill | 0.411 ** | 0.332 ** | 0.298 ** | 0.355 ** | 0.427 ** |
You Have Taken Medication for the Enhancement of Physical/Cognitive Performance | You Have Taken Prescription Medication without Consulting a Doctor | You Have Refrained from Consulting a Doctor Despite Having Worrying Symptoms | You Have Bought Prescription Medication Just in Case You Might Need It | You Have Talked a Doctor into Prescribing Medication | |
You have taken medication for the enhancement of physical/cognitive performance | |||||
You have taken prescription medication without consulting a doctor | 0.320 ** | ||||
You have refrained from consulting a doctor despite having worrying symptoms | 0.283 ** | 0.338 ** | |||
You have bought prescription medication just in case you might need it | 0.233 ** | 0.265 ** | 0.271 ** | ||
You have talked a doctor into prescribing medication | 0.355 ** | 0.352 ** | 0.401 ** | 0.314 ** | |
You have taken medication as a precaution against becoming ill | 0.277 ** | 0.338 ** | 0.218 ** | 0.297 ** | 0.347 ** |
Appendix C
Statement | Characteristic | Yes, before and during the Lockdown % (no/ne) SR | Yes, only before the Lockdown % (no/ne) SR | Pearson’s Chi-Square | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
You have taken prescription medication without consulting a doctor | Children (people under 18 years of age) in household | 0 | 23.9 (26/24.8) 0.3 | 76.3 (81/84.2) -0.1 | p< 0.05 χ 2 = 9.96 |
1 | 17.6 (21/27.0) −1.2 | 82.4 (98/92.0) 0.6 | |||
2 | 39.5 (15/8.6) 2.2 | 60.5 (23/29.4) −1.2 | |||
3 | 0.0 (0/1.6) −1.3 | 100 (7/5.4) 0.7 | |||
You have bought prescription medication just in case you might need it | Life satisfaction | Satisfied | 17.1 (31/29.8) 0.2 | 82,9 (150/151.2) −0.1 | p < 0.01 χ 2 = 11.15 |
Dissatisfied | 7.7 (4/8.6) 1.6 | 92.3 (48/43.4) 0.7 | |||
Hard to say | 50.0 (5/1.6) 2.6 | 50 (5/8.4) −1.2 | |||
Self-assessment of health | Very good and good | 16.3% (36/36.3) −0.1 | 83.8% (134/133.8) 0.0 | p < 0.05 χ2 = 6.15 | |
Moderate | 11.9 (8/11.0) −0.9 | 88.1 (59/56.0) 0.4 | |||
Poor and very poor | 37.5 (6/2.6) 2.1 | 62.5 (10/13.4) −0.9 | |||
Religiosity (frequency of participation in religious practices) | Several times a week | 14.3 (1/1.2) −0.1 | 85.7 (6/5.8) 0.1 | p < 0.05 χ 2 = 15.11 | |
Once a week | 9.9 (6/10.2) −1.3 | 90.3 (56/51.8) 0.6 | |||
1–2 times a month | 11.6 (5/7.1) −0.8 | 88.4 (38/35.9) 0.3 | |||
Several times a year | 13.6 (9/10.9) −0.6 | 86.4 (57/55.1) 0.3 | |||
Once every few years | 44.4 (8/3) 2.9 | 55.6 (10) −1.3 | |||
Not at all | 23.4 (11) 1.2 | 76.6 (36) −0.5 | |||
You have taken medication as a precaution against becoming ill | Gender | Female | 29.2 (33/26.5) 1.3 | 70.8 (80/86.5) −0.7 | p < 0.05 χ2 = 4.05 |
Male | 17.9 (21/27.5) −1.2 | 82.1 (96/89.5) 0.7 | |||
Age | 18–29 | 26.2 (22/19.7) 0.5 | 73.8 (62/64.3) −0.3 | p < 0.05 χ 2 = 4.05 | |
30–39 | 16.1 (10/14.6) −1.2 | 83.9 (52/47.4) 0.7 | |||
− | |||||
40–49 | 33.3 (14/9.9) 1.3 | 66.7 (28/32.1) −0.7 | |||
50–59 | 29.6 (8/6.3) 0.7 | 70.4 (19/20.7) −0.4 | |||
60+ | 0.0 (0/3.5) −1.9 | 100 (15/11.5) 1.0 | |||
Life satisfaction | Satisfied | 28.1 (48/40.1) 1.2 | 71.9 (123/130.9) −0.7 | p < 0.05 χ2 = 7.82 | |
Dissatisfied | 10.2 (5/11.5) −1.9 | 89.8 (44) 1.1 | |||
Hard to say | 10 (1/2.3) −0.9 | 90.0 (9/7.7) 0.5 | |||
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Please Indicate Whether the Following Situations Have Occurred | Yes, Both before and during the Lockdown% (n) | Yes, Only during the Lockdown % (n) | Yes, Only before the Lockdown % (n) | No, Never % (n) | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
You have taken medication for the enhancement of physical/cognitive performance | 7.1 (72) | 10.8 (109) | 18.3 (185) | 63.8 (645) | 100 (1011) |
You have taken prescription medication 1 without consulting a doctor | 6.7 (68) | 10.2 (103) | 22.4 (227) | 60.5 (613) | 100 (1011) |
You have refrained from consulting a doctor despite having worrying symptoms | 3.1 (31) | 12.1 (123) | 26.0 (263) | 58.8 (595) | 100 (1012) |
You have bought prescription medication just in case you might need it 2 | 3.9 (40) | 15.5 (157) | 20.0 (203) | 60.5 (613) | 100 (1013) |
You have talked a doctor into prescribing medication | 1.3 (13) | 7.0 (71) | 11.4 (115) | 80.4 (814) | 100 (1013) |
You have taken medication as a precaution against becoming ill | 5.3 (54) | 11.3 (114) | 17.4 (176) | 66.0 (669) | 100 (1013) |
Independent Variable | Dependent Variable | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Analysis 1 General Index | Analysis 2 Lockdown Index | |||||||||
B | SE B | β | t | p | B | SE B | β | t | p | |
Age (ascending) | 0.046 | 0.125 | 0.012 | 0.371 | 0.711 | 0.019 | 0.038 | 0.018 | 0.511 | 0.609 |
Population size of place of residence (ascending) | −0.016 | 0.051 | −0.011 | −0.313 | 0.754 | 0.035 | 0.033 | 0.036 | 1.049 | 0.295 |
Education (ascending) | 0.122 | 0.045 | 0.091 | 2.696 | 0.007 | −0.023 | 0.054 | −0.014 | −0.427 | 0.669 |
Frequency of participation in religious practices (descending) | 0.002 | 0.074 | 0.001 | 0.032 | 0.975 | −0.111 | 0.029 | −0.126 | −3.763 | <0.001 |
Life satisfaction (descending) | −0.187 | 0.040 | −0.154 | −4.682 | <0.001 | −0.023 | 0.049 | −0.017 | −0.476 | 0.634 |
Gender (F-M) | 0.064 | 0.066 | 0.034 | 0.978 | 0.328 | −0.011 | 0.092 | −0.004 | −0.122 | 0.903 |
Self-assessment of health (descending) | 0.315 | 0.088 | 0.132 | 3.589 | <0.001 | 0.125 | 0.065 | 0.073 | 1.939 | 0.053 |
Children in household (none–at least one) | 0.535 | 0.127 | 0.140 | 4.204 | <0.001 | 0.282 | 0.094 | 0.102 | 3.010 | 0.003 |
Constant | 1.326 | 0.459 | 2.889 | 0.004 | 0.972 | 0.338 | 2.874 | 0.004 |
Variable | General Index | Lockdown Index | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | M | SD | t | p | d | n | M | SD | t | p | d | |
Life satisfaction 1 | ||||||||||||
Satisfied | 770 | 2.02 | 1.88 | −2.85 | <0.01 | 0.24 | 770 | 0.94 | 1.43 | −0.61 | >0.05 | n/a |
Dissatisfied | 189 | 2.50 | 2.14 | 189 | 1.01 | 1.37 | ||||||
Children in household 2 | ||||||||||||
None | 414 | 1.78 | 1.76 | −4.28 | <0.001 | 0.28 | 414 | 0.78 | 1.20 | −3.22 | <0.01 | 0.20 |
At least one | 506 | 2.31 | 1.98 | 506 | 1.06 | 1.49 | ||||||
Religious practices | ||||||||||||
Regular | 418 | 2.41 | 2.12 | 4.30 | <0.001 | 0.28 | 418 | 1.13 | 1.53 | 3.64 | <0.001 | 0.23 |
Sporadic or not at all | 595 | 1.87 | 1.75 | 595 | 0.80 | 1.28 |
Independent Variable | n | M | SD | F | p | Post-hoc Comparisons (Bonferroni Corrected) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean Difference | p | |||||||
Education | ||||||||
General Index | ||||||||
Primary, lower secondary, vocational | 124 | 2.44 | 2.06 | 4.10 (21,010) | <0.05 | Secondary education | 0.50 | <0.05 |
Higher education | 0.24 | >0.05 | ||||||
Secondary education | 531 | 1.94 | 1.86 | Primary etc. | −0.50 | <0.05 | ||
Higher education | −0.25 | >0.05 | ||||||
Higher education | 358 | 2.19 | 1.97 | Primary etc. | −0.24 | >0.05 | ||
Secondary education | 0.25 | >0.05 | ||||||
Lockdown index | ||||||||
Primary, lower secondary, vocational | 124 | 1.18 | 1.60 | 3.33 (21,010) | <0.05 | Secondary education | 0.34 | <0.05 |
Higher education | 0.19 | >0.05 | ||||||
Secondary education | 531 | 0.85 | 1.32 | Primary etc. | −0.34 | <0.05 | ||
Higher education | −0.15 | >0.05 | ||||||
Higher education | 358 | 1.00 | 1.43 | Primary etc. | −0.19 | >0.05 | ||
Secondary education | 0.15 | >0.05 | ||||||
Place of residence (population size) | ||||||||
General index | ||||||||
Village | 345 | 2.16 | 2.07 | 3.24 (41,008) | <0.05 | City of up to 19,999 | 0.44 | >0.05 |
City 20,000–199,999 | 0.24 | >0.05 | ||||||
City 200,000–499,999 | 0.02 | >0.05 | ||||||
City of over 500,000 | −0.36 | >0.05 | ||||||
City of up to 19,999 | 110 | 1.72 | 1.69 | Village | −0.44 | >0.05 | ||
City 20,000–199,999 | −0.19 | >0.05 | ||||||
City 200,000–499,999 | −0.42 | >0.05 | ||||||
City of over 500,000 | −0.80 | <0.05 | ||||||
City 20,000–199,999 | 228 | 1.91 | 1.80 | Village | −0.24 | >0.05 | ||
City of up to 19,999 | 0.19 | >0.05 | ||||||
City 200,000–499,999 | −0.22 | >0.05 | ||||||
City of over 500,000 | −0.60 | <0.05 | ||||||
City 200,000–499,999 | 198 | 2.13 | 1.86 | Village | −0.02 | >0.05 | ||
City of up to 19,999 | 0.42 | >0.05 | ||||||
City 20,000–199,999 | 0.22 | >0.05 | ||||||
City of over 500,000 | −0.38 | >0.05 | ||||||
City of over 500,000 | 132 | 2.51 | 2.00 | Village | 0.36 | >0.05 | ||
City of up to 19,999 | 0.80 | <0.05 | ||||||
City 20,000–199,999 | 0.60 | <0.05 | ||||||
City 200,000–499,999 | 0.38 | >0.05 | ||||||
Self-assessment of health | ||||||||
General index | ||||||||
Very good | 229 | 1.80 | 1.95 | 6.88 (21,009) | <0.001 | Good | −0.18 | >0.05 |
Moderate | −0.59 | <0.01 | ||||||
Bad | −1.00 | <0.01 | ||||||
Good | 468 | 1.99 | 1.81 | Very good | 18 | >0.05 | ||
Moderate | −0.41 | <0.05 | ||||||
Bad | −0.82 | <0.05 | ||||||
Moderate | 263 | 2.40 | 2.05 | Very good | 0.59 | <0.01 | ||
Good | 0.41 | <0.05 | ||||||
Bad | −0.41 | >0.05 | ||||||
Bad (poor and very poor) | 53 | 2.81 | 1.99 | Very good | 1.00 | <0.01 | ||
Good | 0.82 | <0.05 | ||||||
Moderate | 0.41 | >0.05 |
n | M | SD | t | p | d | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fear | |||||||
I feel fear for my health | Yes 1 | 580 | 1.08 | 1.49 | 5.40 | <0.001 | 0.37 |
No 2 | 286 | 0.61 | 1.01 | ||||
I feel fear for the health and lives of my loved ones | Yes | 693 | 0.98 | 1.40 | 2.99 | <0.01 | 0.24 |
No | 178 | 0.67 | 1.15 | ||||
I am afraid that I will be financially broken by the prolonged pandemic | Yes | 560 | 1.05 | 1.50 | 4.27 | <0.001 | 0.29 |
No | 260 | 0.67 | 1.05 | ||||
I am afraid of losing my job because of the situation | Yes | 434 | 1.18 | 1.61 | 5.36 | <0.001 | 0.38 |
No | 321 | 0.66 | 1.05 | ||||
Mental well-being | |||||||
The prolonged period of social isolation is negatively affecting my mental well-being | Yes | 609 | 1.05 | 1.47 | 4.60 | <0.001 | 0.33 |
No | 230 | 0.63 | 1.05 | ||||
Identifying the health hazard and avoiding it | |||||||
I follow information about the pandemic daily, and monitor incidence statistics | Yes | 516 | 1.09 | 1.51 | 4.16 | <0.001 | 0.27 |
No | 342 | 0.71 | 1.33 | ||||
I have avoided going inside pharmacies since the pandemic started | Yes | 313 | 1.27 | 1.62 | 5.12 | <0.001 | 0.38 |
No | 488 | 0.73 | 1.16 | ||||
I have acquired appropriate food supplies to allow myself to stay at home for a long period of time | Yes | 417 | 1.17 | 1.57 | 4.63 | <0.001 | 0.32 |
No | 421 | 0.72 | 1.17 | ||||
In the current situation, I would not offer my hand to greet anyone except members of my household | Yes | 461 | 1.11 | 1.51 | 3.28 | <0.001 | 0.28 |
No | 310 | 0.73 | 1.23 | ||||
I would get vaccinated if a coronavirus vaccine was already available | Yes | 452 | 1.05 | 1.47 | 2.95 | <0.01 | 0.21 |
No | 305 | 0.76 | 1.25 | ||||
I believe that defrosting of the economy and lifting restrictions has been done too quickly | Yes | 404 | 1.11 | 1.51 | 3.11 | <0.01 | 0.23 |
No | 345 | 0.80 | 1.23 | ||||
Behavior in the event of contracting the virus | |||||||
If I developed coronavirus symptoms, I would immediately contact the appropriate infectious disease hospital or sanitary department | Yes | 772 | 0.83 | 1.29 | −3.41 | <0.01 | 0.46 |
No | 80 | 1.56 | 1.86 | ||||
I know exactly what to do if I observe coronavirus symptoms in myself or members of my household | Yes | 696 | 0.85 | 1.31 | −3.95 | <0.001 | 0.45 |
No | 108 | 1.55 | 1.75 | ||||
Beliefs in controversial theories | |||||||
Rather than medical drugs, more natural methods, a proper diet, or alternative medications are the best way to fight the coronavirus | Yes | 258 | 1.22 | 1.67 | 2.60 | <0.05 | 0.22 |
No | 390 | 0.89 | 1.33 | ||||
Pharmaceutical companies are responsible for releasing the coronavirus | Yes | 177 | 1.37 | 1.82 | 2.98 | <0.01 | 0.27 |
No | 495 | 0.93 | 1.35 |
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Makowska, M.; Boguszewski, R.; Nowakowski, M.; Podkowińska, M. Self-Medication-Related Behaviors and Poland’s COVID-19 Lockdown. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228344
Makowska M, Boguszewski R, Nowakowski M, Podkowińska M. Self-Medication-Related Behaviors and Poland’s COVID-19 Lockdown. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(22):8344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228344
Chicago/Turabian StyleMakowska, Marta, Rafał Boguszewski, Michał Nowakowski, and Monika Podkowińska. 2020. "Self-Medication-Related Behaviors and Poland’s COVID-19 Lockdown" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 22: 8344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228344