Inequalities in Poverty and Income between Single Mothers and Fathers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Data Source and Participants
3. Measures
3.1. Objective 1
3.2. Objective 2
4. Statistical Analysis
4.1. Summary Statistics
4.2. Multivariate Regression Analysis
5. Results
5.1. Summary Statistics
5.2. Multivariate Results
5.2.1. Objective 1
5.2.2. Objective 2
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Declarations Ethics Approval
Availability of Data and Material
Abbreviations
References
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Variables | Full Sample N = 1135 | Single Mothers NM = 981 | Single Fathers NF = 154 | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M/P | S.E. | M/P | S.E. | M/P | S.E. | ||
Taxable income ($) | 39,150 | 2401 | 35,287 | 2265 | 56,458 | 7214 | 0.01 |
Non-work income ($) | 4229 | 552 | 4879 | 643 | 1320 | 263 | 0.00 |
Total income ($) | 43,379 | 2612 | 40,165 | 2569 | 57,778 | 7233 | 0.02 |
Poverty status (%) (Objective 1) | 229 | 14 | 204 | 13 | 343 | 45 | 0.00 |
Poverty status (%) (Objective 2) | 253 | 15 | 231 | 15 | 351 | 45 | 0.01 |
Age (years) | 36.83 | 0.52 | 36.44 | 0.57 | 38.56 | 0.98 | 0.05 |
Work hours per week | 39.48 | 0.60 | 38.54 | 0.70 | 43.70 | 1.19 | 0.00 |
Categorized weeks worked last year | 4.93 | 0.06 | 4.86 | 0.07 | 5.26 | 0.12 | 0.01 |
Occupation score | 30.85 | 0.96 | 31.38 | 1.11 | 28.48 | 1.72 | 0.17 |
Number of children | 1.66 | 0.04 | 1.72 | 0.05 | 1.43 | 0.07 | 0.00 |
Years of education | 13.53 | 0.12 | 13.54 | 0.13 | 13.51 | 0.25 | 0.93 |
Years of experience | 5.18 | 0.31 | 5.13 | 0.32 | 5.43 | 0.77 | 0.71 |
Race | |||||||
White | 0.54 | 0.05 | 0.50 | 0.06 | 0.68 | 0.05 | 0.01 |
Black | 0.31 | 0.05 | 0.34 | 0.05 | 0.19 | 0.05 | 0.01 |
Hispanic | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.06 |
Other | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.17 |
Marital status | |||||||
Divorced | 0.43 | 0.03 | 0.41 | 0.04 | 0.52 | 0.05 | 0.10 |
Widowed | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.32 |
Separated | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.21 |
Never married | 0.43 | 0.04 | 0.47 | 0.04 | 0.26 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
Education | |||||||
High school degree or less | 0.40 | 0.03 | 0.40 | 0.03 | 0.37 | 0.06 | 0.62 |
Higher than high school | 0.60 | 0.03 | 0.60 | 0.03 | 0.63 | 0.06 | 0.62 |
Region | |||||||
Northeast | 0.16 | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.04 | 0.23 | 0.05 | 0.10 |
North central | 0.28 | 0.03 | 0.29 | 0.03 | 0.22 | 0.05 | 0.20 |
South | 0.34 | 0.03 | 0.35 | 0.04 | 0.31 | 0.05 | 0.43 |
West | 0.22 | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0.05 | 0.24 | 0.04 | 0.57 |
Year | |||||||
2011 | 0.49 | 0.02 | 0.50 | 0.02 | 0.45 | 0.04 | 0.20 |
2013 | 0.51 | 0.02 | 0.50 | 0.02 | 0.55 | 0.04 | 0.20 |
Multivariate Regression | Log Taxable Income | Poverty Status | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Kramer et al. (Kramer 2016) | Current Study | Kramer et al. (Kramer 2016) | Current Study | ||||
Year | 1990 | 2000 | 2010 | 2011–2013 | 1990 | 2000 | 2010 | 2011–2013 |
Coef.(S.E.) | Coef.(S.E.) | |||||||
(Male) | ||||||||
Female | −0.55 *** | −0.44 *** | −0.48 *** | −0.11 | −63.46 *** | −42.31 *** | −30.67 *** | 57.81 |
(0.61) | (145.63) | |||||||
(White) | ||||||||
Black | 0.04 *** | 0.01 *** | −0.03 *** | −0.07 | −13.01 *** | −14.69 *** | −17.50 *** | −29.24 |
(0.09) | (20.16) | |||||||
Other Race | −0.05 *** | −0.09 *** | −0.08 *** | −0.09 | −23.91 *** | −24.45 *** | −18.76 *** | −60.85 * |
(0.10) | (25.47) | |||||||
Number of children | 0.01 *** | 0.01 *** | 0.01 ** | 0.04 | ||||
(0.07) | ||||||||
Age | 0.01 *** | 0.01 *** | 0.01 *** | 0.02 *** | 5.67 *** | 5.69 *** | 4.79 *** | 6.30 ** |
(0.01) | (1.89) | |||||||
(Divorced) | ||||||||
Widowed | −0.12 *** | −0.11 *** | −0.08 *** | −0.28 | 5.82 *** | 6.59 *** | 6.90 *** | −64.43 |
(0.24) | (32.65) | |||||||
Separated | −0.09 *** | −0.06 *** | −0.10 *** | −0.16 | −22.54 *** | −23.07 *** | −29.53 *** | −49.14 * |
(0.09) | (23.56) | |||||||
Never Married | −0.13 *** | −0.11 *** | −0.11 *** | −0.08 | −4.98 *** | −7.00 *** | −15.00 *** | 11.26 |
(0.12) | (34.44) | |||||||
Work hours per week | 0.01 *** | 0.02 *** | 0.02 *** | 0.04 ** | 1.54 *** | 2.16 *** | 2.81 *** | 6.98 * |
(0.01) | (3.16) | |||||||
Categorized weeks worked last year | 0.27 *** | 0.25 *** | 0.29 *** | 0.23 *** | 22.27 *** | 19.89 *** | 20.77 *** | 12.15 * |
(0.03) | (4.84) | |||||||
Non-work income | −0.00 *** | −0.00 ** | −0.00 *** | 0.00 | ||||
(0.00) | ||||||||
Occupation score | 0.02 *** | 0.02 *** | 0.02 *** | 0.01 * | 2.94 *** | 2.79 *** | 3.44 *** | 3.92 |
(0.00) | (2.15) | |||||||
(Higher than high school) | ||||||||
High school degree or less | −0.22 *** | −0.20 *** | −0.26 *** | −0.33 * | −40.07 *** | −35.72 *** | −46.80 *** | −85.86 |
(0.12) | (56.83) | |||||||
Gender × number of children | −0.05 *** | −0.04 *** | −0.03 *** | −0.06 | ||||
(0.07) | ||||||||
Gender × working hours | 0.01 *** | 0.01 *** | 0.01 *** | 0.00 | 0.56 *** | 0.58 *** | 0.50 *** | −2.99 |
(0.01) | (3.33) | |||||||
Gender × occupation score | −0.01 *** | −0.01 *** | −0.01 *** | −0.00 | −0.11 *** | −0.31 *** | -−0.71 *** | −1.33 |
(0.01) | (2.39) | |||||||
Gender × high school or less | −0.08 *** | −0.10 *** | −0.07 *** | −0.00 | −4.60 *** | −11.95 *** | −10.09 *** | 20.11 |
(0.15) | (58.93) | |||||||
(Northeast) | ||||||||
North central | NR | NR | NR | −0.23 ** | NR | NR | NR | −57.92 * |
(0.09) | (23.68) | |||||||
South | NR | NR | NR | −0.12 | NR | NR | NR | −38.77 |
(0.09) | (24.18) | |||||||
West | NR | NR | NR | 0.04 | NR | NR | NR | 7.24 |
(0.11) | (31.62) | |||||||
(Year 2011) | ||||||||
Year 2013 | −0.03 | −17.39 | ||||||
(0.05) | (10.50) | |||||||
Constant | 7.23 *** | 7.44 *** | 7.11 *** | 6.83 *** | −163.66 *** | −186.27 *** | −209.17 *** | −293.74 |
(0.67) | (155.49) | |||||||
N | 219,743 | 273,463 | 59,099 | 1135 | 219,743 | 273,463 | 59,099 | 1135 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.499 | 0.474 | 0.544 | 0.563 | 0.473 | 0.463 | 0.475 | 0.364 |
Variables | Log Taxable Income | Log Non-Work Income | Log Total Income | Poverty Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef.(robust S.E.) | Coef.(robust S.E.) | Coef.(robust S.E.) | Coef.(robust S.E.) | |
(Male) | ||||
Female | −0.47 *** | 1.01 *** | −0.33 *** | −101.15 ** |
(0.09) | (0.28) | (0.08) | (37.09) | |
(White) | ||||
Black | −0.11 | −0.04 | −0.11 | −37.99 |
(0.08) | (0.20) | (0.07) | (20.71) | |
Hispanic | 0.01 | −0.21 | −0.04 | −55.52 |
(0.13) | (0.28) | (0.11) | (30.77) | |
Other race | −0.28 | −0.86 | −0.42 | −89.10 |
(0.39) | (0.46) | (0.38) | (44.51) | |
Log number of children | −0.09 | 0.57 * | −0.01 | −44.14 |
(0.13) | (0.27) | (0.11) | (43.33) | |
Age | 0.13 ** | 0.11 | 0.12 *** | 12.29 |
(0.04) | (0.08) | (0.03) | (6.57) | |
Age squared | −0.00 ** | −0.00 | −0.00 *** | −0.08 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.09) | |
(Divorced) | ||||
Widowed | −0.31 | 0.15 | −0.18 | −79.90 |
(0.25) | (0.66) | (0.22) | (51.48) | |
Separated | −0.27 * | −0.03 | −0.25 * | −65.11 * |
(0.10) | (0.28) | (0.10) | (29.20) | |
Never married | −0.04 | −0.19 | −0.10 | 5.39 |
(0.14) | (0.19) | (0.12) | (43.34) | |
Years of education | 0.01 | −0.23 | 0.02 | −43.09 |
(0.11) | (0.16) | (0.09) | (30.44) | |
Years of education squared | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 3.03 * |
(0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (1.20) | |
Years of experience | 0.09 *** | −0.02 | 0.06 *** | 5.11 |
(0.01) | (0.06) | (0.01) | (4.47) | |
Years of experience squared | −0.00 *** | −0.00 | −0.00 ** | −0.05 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.22) | |
(Northeast) | ||||
North central | −0.33 * | −0.48 | −0.28 ** | −68.70 * |
(0.13) | (0.35) | (0.10) | (31.20) | |
South | −0.30 * | −0.52 | −0.31 ** | −64.50 * |
(0.12) | (0.30) | (0.11) | (26.46) | |
West | −0.11 | 0.01 | −0.06 | 11.26 |
(0.12) | (0.37) | (0.11) | (33.16) | |
(2011) | ||||
2013 | −0.04 | 0.05 | −0.08 | −24.02 * |
(0.05) | (0.13) | (0.04) | (10.32) | |
Constant | 6.78 *** | 5.39 * | 7.04 *** | 111.04 |
(1.16) | (2.15) | (1.04) | (294.53) | |
F statistic | 25.39 *** | 4.14 *** | 29.29 *** | 22.01 *** |
N | 1135 | 645 | 1135 | 1135 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.37 | 0.18 | 0.42 | 0.37 |
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Lu, Y.-C.; Walker, R.; Richard, P.; Younis, M. Inequalities in Poverty and Income between Single Mothers and Fathers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17010135
Lu Y-C, Walker R, Richard P, Younis M. Inequalities in Poverty and Income between Single Mothers and Fathers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(1):135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17010135
Chicago/Turabian StyleLu, Yuan-Chiao, Regine Walker, Patrick Richard, and Mustafa Younis. 2020. "Inequalities in Poverty and Income between Single Mothers and Fathers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 1: 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17010135