Trends in Prevalence and Related Risk Factors of Overweight and Obesity among Women of Reproductive Age in Zimbabwe, 2005–2015
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Measurement of Outcome Variable
2.3. Independent Variable
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Distribution of Characteristics
3.2. Trends Over Time in the Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity
3.3. Logistic Regression
3.4. Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Demographic Factors with Overweight and Obesity
3.5. Overweight and Obesity and Potential Modifiable Risk Factors
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | 2005/2006 | 2010/2011 | 2015 |
---|---|---|---|
(n = 8158) | (n = 8448) | (n = 9066) | |
N (%)/Percentile | N (%)/Percentile | N (%)/Percentile | |
Body Mass Index (BMI) kg/m2 (Mean (± SD)) | 23.17 (5.20) | 26.89 (16.01) | 24.56 (5.53) |
5th percentile | 17.77 | 18.09 | 18.24 |
10th percentile | 18.66 | 18.91 | 19.21 |
75th percentile | 24.99 | 26.47 | 27.02 |
95th percentile | 31.22 | 40.17 | 34.49 |
Age (Mean (± SD)) | 27.86 (9.54) | 28.32 (9.49) | 28.62 (9.39) |
15–19 | 1959 (24.10) | 1867 (22.10) | 1994 (21.99) |
20–24 | 1718 (21.06) | 1604 (18.99) | 1571 (17.33) |
25–29 | 1290 (15.81) | 1501 (17.77) | 1482 (16.35) |
30–34 | 1108 (13.58) | 1180 (13.97) | 1423 (15.70) |
35–39 | 793 (9.72) | 955 (11.30) | 1114 (12.29) |
40+ | 1290 (15.81) | 1341 (15.87) | 1482 (16.35) |
Marital Status | |||
Never married | 2369 (29.04) | 2292 (27.13) | 2540 (28.02) |
Currently married | 4380 (53.69) | 4694 (55.56) | 5047 (55.67) |
Living together | 120 (1.47) | 226 (2.68) | 268 (2.96) |
Widowed | 636 (7.80) | 575 (6.81) | 409 (4.51) |
Divorced/separated | 653 (8.00) | 661 (7.82) | 802 (8.85) |
Parity | |||
<2 | 3812 (46.73) | 3797 (44.95) | 3914 (43.17) |
2–3 | 2376 (29.12) | 2787 (32.99) | 3173 (35.00) |
4–5 | 1165 (14.28) | 1270 (15.03) | 1487 (16.40) |
6+ | 805 (9.87) | 594 (7.03) | 492 (5.43) |
Place of residence | |||
Urban | 2966 (36.36) | 3208 (37.97) | 4079 (44.99) |
Rural | 5192 (63.64) | 5240 (62.03) | 4987 (55.01) |
Educational Level | |||
No education | 364 (4.46) | 212 (2.51) | 92 (1.01) |
Primary | 2703 (33.13) | 2412 (28.55) | 2179 (24.03) |
Secondary and higher | 5091 (62.41) | 5824 (68.94) | 6795 (74.95) |
Employment Status | |||
Not currently employed | 5142 (63.03) | 5439 (64.38) | 5317 (58.65) |
Currently employed | 3016 (36.97) | 3009 (35.62) | 3749 (41.35) |
Wealth (Index) | |||
Poorest | 1472 (18.04) | 1550 (18.35) | 1359 (14.99) |
Poorer | 1458 (17.87) | 1426 (16.88) | 1327 (14.64) |
Middle | 3216 (39.42) | 3361 (39.78) | 3750 (41.36) |
Richer | 2012 (24.66) | 2111 (24.99) | 2630 (29.01) |
Region | |||
Manicaland | 955 (11.71) | 921 (10.90) | 925 (10.20) |
Mashonaland Central | 680 (8.34) | 824 (10.00) | 891 (9.83) |
Mashonaland East | 638 (7.82) | 783 (9.27) | 825 (9.10) |
Mashonaland West | 707 (8.67) | 889 (10.52) | 964 (10.63) |
Matebeleland North | 632 (7.75) | 714 (8.45) | 795 (8.77) |
Matebeleland South | 586 (7.18) | 779 (9.22) | 743 (8.20) |
Midlands | 1021 (12.52) | 901 (10.67) | 967 (10.67) |
Masvingo | 875 (10.73) | 723 (8.56) | 959 (10.58) |
Harare | 1268 (15.54) | 1108 (13.12) | 1109 (12.23) |
Bulawayo | 796 (9.76) | 806 (9.54) | 888 (9.79) |
Currently Smoking | |||
Yes | 77 (0.94) | 52 (0.62) | 49 (0.54) |
No | 8081 (99.06) | 8396 (99.38) | 9017 (99.46) |
Currently Drinking | |||
Yes | - | 338 (3.73) | |
No | - | 8728 (96.27) |
Variables | 2005/2006 (n = 8158) | 2010/2011 (n = 8448) | 2015 (n = 9066) |
---|---|---|---|
Overweight and Obese (%) | Overweight and Obese (%) | Overweight and Obese (%) | |
Age | |||
15–19 | 11.5 | 15.5 | 13.7 |
20–24 | 18.2 | 22.9 | 25.5 |
25–29 | 25.7 | 34.9 | 37.5 |
30–34 | 31.9 | 41.1 | 47.5 |
35–39 | 37.7 | 44.3 | 52.3 |
40+ | 39.7 | 52.2 | 52.3 |
Marital Status | |||
Never married | 15.4 | 20.2 | 19.3 |
Currently married | 28.8 | 37.9 | 44.3 |
Living together | 35.0 | 32.3 | 44.3 |
Widowed | 32.9 | 41.4 | 46.0 |
Divorced/separated | 24.7 | 35.7 | 40.3 |
Parity | |||
<2 | 17.34 | 23.70 | 23.94 |
2–3 | 29.63 | 38.39 | 45.89 |
4–5 | 34.76 | 43.78 | 46.20 |
6+ | 33.29 | 44.11 | 47.76 |
Place of residence | |||
Urban | 35.5 | 44.5 | 46.5 |
Rural | 18.9 | 26.0 | 28.4 |
Educational Level | |||
No education | 26.9 | 36.3 | 32.6 |
Primary | 21.9 | 30.3 | 29.7 |
Secondary and higher | 26.4 | 34.0 | 29.7 |
Employment Status | |||
Not currently employed | 21.6 | 28.6 | 29.3 |
Currently employed | 30.6 | 41.0 | 46.9 |
Wealth (Index) | |||
Poorest | 14.3 | 18.7 | 19.1 |
Poorer | 17.0 | 25.0 | 25.2 |
Middle | 25.0 | 25.0 | 37.8 |
Richer | 38.5 | 45.4 | 49.5 |
Region | |||
Manicaland | 26.9 | 34.3 | 35.8 |
Mashonaland Central | 14.7 | 26.0 | 33.3 |
Mashonaland East | 22.1 | 28.2 | 33.3 |
Mashonaland West | 20.5 | 29.6 | 33.2 |
Matebeleland North | 16.1 | 24.7 | 30.2 |
Matebeleland South | 24.6 | 26.3 | 31.8 |
Midlands | 21.3 | 32.5 | 34.2 |
Masvingo | 20.9 | 31.0 | 35.1 |
Harare | 36.2 | 47.0 | 47.7 |
Bulawayo | 36.2 | 44.0 | 45.2 |
Currently Smoking | |||
Yes | 22.1 | 34.6 | 51.0 |
No | 25.0 | 33.0 | 36.5 |
Currently Drinking | |||
Yes | - | - | 55.3 |
No | - | - | 35.8 |
Total | 25.0 a | 33.0 a | 36.6 a |
Variables | 2005/2006 | 2010/2011 | 2015 |
---|---|---|---|
aOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | |
Age | |||
15–19 (ref) | |||
20–24 | 1.38 (1.12–1.71) *** | 1.27 (1.04–1.54) ** | 1.47 (1.21–1.78) *** |
25–29 | 2.06 (1.61–2.63) *** | 2.19 (1.77–2.70) *** | 2.24 (1.81–2.77) *** |
30–34 | 2.72 (2.09–3.54) *** | 2.71 (2.15–3.41) *** | 3.21 (2.56–4.02) *** |
35–39 | 3.40 (2.57–4.51) *** | 3.23 (2.54–4.13) *** | 3.98 (3.13–5.06) *** |
40+ | 4.37 (3.28–5.83) *** | 4.70 (3.66–6.02) *** | 4.73 (3.73–6.01) *** |
Marital Status | |||
Never married (ref) | |||
Currently married | 1.32 (1.08–1.61) *** | 1.44(1.21–1.71) *** | 1.72 (1.45–2.05) *** |
Living together | 1.63 (1.05–2.53) ** | 1.14 (0.81–1.60) | 1.11 (0.81–1.53) |
Widowed | 1.05 (0.80–1.37) | 1.02 (0.79–1.32) | 1.24 (0.94–1.63) * |
Divorced/separated | 0.97 (0.75–1.26) | 1.24 (0.98–1.56) | 1.29 (1.04–1.60) ** |
Parity | |||
<2 (ref) | |||
2–3 | 1.21 (1.01–1.44) ** | 1.16 (1.01–1.35) * | 1.26 (1.09–1.47) ** |
4–5 | 1.37 (1.10–1.71) *** | 1.37 (1.14–1.68) *** | 1.21 (1.00–1.46) ** |
6+ | 1.34 (1.03–1.74) ** | 1.38 (1.14–1.68) ** | 1.53 (1.18–1.98) *** |
Place of residence | |||
Urban (ref) | |||
Rural | 0.72 (0.58–0.88) ** | 0.63 (0.53–0.74) *** | 0.78 (0.68–0.90) *** |
Educational Level | |||
No education (ref) | |||
Primary | 0.97 (0.74–1.27) | 1.02 (0.74–1.39) | 1.16 (0.72–1.87) |
Secondary and higher | 1.16 (0.86–1.54) | 1.12 (0.82–1.54) | 1.39 (0.86–2.24) |
Employment Status | |||
Not currently employed (ref) | |||
Currently employed | 1.27 (1.13–1.42) *** | 1.09 (0.98–1.22) | 1.19 (1.07–1.32) *** |
Wealth (Index) | |||
Poorest (ref) | |||
Poorer | 1.25 (1.01–1.54) * | 1.57 (1.30–1.90) *** | 1.47 (1.20–1.78) *** |
Middle | 1.80 (1.48–2.19) *** | 2.19 (1.84–2.61) *** | 2.40 (2.01–2.87) *** |
Richer | 3.11 (2.40–4.01) *** | 3.06 (2.47–3.78) *** | 3.61 (2.89–4.51) *** |
Region | |||
Manicaland (ref) | |||
Mashonaland Central | 0.49 (0.37–0.64) *** | 0.67 (0.54–0.84) *** | 0.93 (0.75–1.15) |
Mashonaland East | 0.69 (0.53–0.88) ** | 0.72 (0.58–0.90) ** | 0.86 (0.70–1.07) |
Mashonaland West | 0.61 (0.48–0.79) *** | 0.75 (0.60–0.92) ** | 0.81 (0.66–1.01) * |
Matebeleland North | 0.69(0.51–0.91) ** | 0.84 (0.66–1.08) | 0.94 (0.75–1.17) |
Matebeleland South | 0.97 (0.75–1.25) | 0.82 (0.65–1.03) | 0.86 (0.69–1.08) |
Midlands | 0.64 (0.51–0.81) *** | 0.93 (0.75–1.15) | 0.91 (0.74–1.13) |
Masvingo | 0.87 (0.69–1.09) | 1.01 (0.81–1.27) | 0.99 (0.80–1.22) |
Harare | 0.86 (0.68–1.10) | 1.01(0.80–1.25) | 1.14 (0.93–1.39) |
Bulawayo | 0.85 (0.65–1.10) | 0.96 (0.76–1.21) | 0.98 (0.78–1.21) |
Currently Smoking | |||
Yes (ref) | |||
No | 1.69 (0.94–3.01) | 1.45 (0.78–2.68) | 0.83 (0.44–1.53) |
Currently Drinking | |||
Yes (ref) | - | - | |
No | - | - | 0.48 (0.38–0.62) *** |
Observations | 8158 | 8448 | 9066 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.1129 | 0.1160 | 0.1422 |
Log Likelihood | −4086.2314 | −4736.0011 | −5106.2441 |
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Mukora-Mutseyekwa, F.; Zeeb, H.; Nengomasha, L.; Kofi Adjei, N. Trends in Prevalence and Related Risk Factors of Overweight and Obesity among Women of Reproductive Age in Zimbabwe, 2005–2015. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2758. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152758
Mukora-Mutseyekwa F, Zeeb H, Nengomasha L, Kofi Adjei N. Trends in Prevalence and Related Risk Factors of Overweight and Obesity among Women of Reproductive Age in Zimbabwe, 2005–2015. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(15):2758. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152758
Chicago/Turabian StyleMukora-Mutseyekwa, Fadzai, Hajo Zeeb, Lydia Nengomasha, and Nicholas Kofi Adjei. 2019. "Trends in Prevalence and Related Risk Factors of Overweight and Obesity among Women of Reproductive Age in Zimbabwe, 2005–2015" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 15: 2758. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152758
APA StyleMukora-Mutseyekwa, F., Zeeb, H., Nengomasha, L., & Kofi Adjei, N. (2019). Trends in Prevalence and Related Risk Factors of Overweight and Obesity among Women of Reproductive Age in Zimbabwe, 2005–2015. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(15), 2758. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152758