1. Introduction
Greater than one-third of the adults in the U.S have a body mass index equal to or greater than 30, classifying them as obese [
1]. Obesity is associated with chronic diseases as diabetes, heart disease, and some cancers [
2,
3]. Obesity in young adults has tracked into adulthood [
1]. Gordon-Larsen et al. [
4], have reported that a high proportion of obese adults were previously obese as adolescents (ages 13–20), and only a small proportion of adolescents moved out of the obese category (to overweight or normal weight) as they became adults [
4]. Unhealthy behaviors like poor dietary intake, decreased physical activity, inconsistent sleep patterns, and increased sedentary time that have been associated with the development of obesity are often learned at a young age and tend to continue through adolescence into adulthood [
5]. Promotion of healthful behaviors that support the prevention of excessive weight gain in young adults is important for obesity prevention and, thus, the chronic diseases associated with obesity.
Young adults are also at greater risk for experiencing unintended weight gain as the transition between high school and college presents many opportunities for lifestyle changes [
6,
7]. On average, young adults attending college gain 0.7 kg (1.6 lbs.) to 4.0 kg (8.8 lbs.) during their first year [
8]. Although this initial weight gain may occur, weight gain often persists beyond the first year and continues throughout the duration of one’s college experience [
9,
10]. This trend of weight gain may negatively impact health and weight outcomes in later adulthood. The first year of college may represent a ‘tipping point’ in lifestyle behavioral patterns that persist into adulthood [
9].
Furthermore, this weight gain may be even more detrimental to those students from families of lower economic status, such as those from ethnic minorities and first-generation college status. First-generation college and ethnic minority students are more likely to come from families of lower economic status with limited access to information about college experiences; thus, transition to college life may be more difficult [
11]. It has been reported that socioeconomic status is inversely correlated with body mass index [
12].
Young adults attending college experience major lifestyle changes often relating to poor dietary intake. Increased consumption of fatty foods and decreased consumption of fruits and vegetables, whole grains and lean proteins are directly related to weight gain and adiposity [
13]. The American College Health Association National College Health Health Assessment of Fall 2018 [
14] reported that 95.8% of college students surveyed did not consume the recommended five servings of fruits and vegetables daily. Lack of adequate fruit and vegetable intake has been reported to be associated with poor diet quality and excessive weight gain [
13]. It has also been reported that cooking skills influence diet quality [
15].
Reported barriers to healthy eating include availability and accessibility of food and the resources necessary to prepare food, lack of knowledge or skills in cooking and nutrition, lack of time, and lack of motivation to live healthily [
16,
17]. It has been reported that those with greater food preparation and cooking skills have diets of better quality [
15,
16,
18]. However, there is limited evidence on the influence of food preparation skills and fruit and vegetable intake in young adults. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine if cooking skills and meal planning behaviors are associated with increased fruit and vegetable intake and lower body mass index (BMI) in college students who are at risk for excessive weight gain. It is hypothesized that students’ cooking patterns and meal planning behaviors will be associated with increased fruit and vegetable intake and more healthful BMI.
4. Discussion
Preventing excessive weight gain by implementing healthful dietary behaviors is important for preventing obesity and lifestyle induced chronic diseases. It has been reported that those with greater food preparation and cooking skills have diets of better quality [
15,
16,
18], supporting the need for interventions preventing excessive weight gain, especially in young adults. Since foods are often not consumed exclusively for the nutrient composition, there are many factors that can be associated with an individuals’ dietary intake [
27]. This study identified behaviors that were likely associated with fruit and vegetable intake and BMI in first-year college students. In this cross-sectional analysis completed on nutritionally-vulnerable college students, type of cooking and cooking frequency, self-instruction for intention of healthful mealtime behaviors and self-regulation for healthful mealtime behaviors were predictors of fruit and vegetable intake. Cooking from basic ingredients and self-regulation for healthful mealtime behaviors were predictors of BMI. The BMI was lower in the participants who indicated greater frequency of these two behaviors.
In the present study, cooking 4–7 times per week and more frequently preparing meals from basic ingredients was associated with greater fruit and vegetable intake. Cooking using mostly convenience foods and ready-made meals was negatively associated with fruit and vegetable intake, while cooking from basic ingredients was negatively associated with BMI. Ready-made and convenience foods, are often rich in energy, fat, salt, and sugar but lack the recommended servings of fruits and vegetables [
16]. Others have reported similar findings. A cross-sectional study conducted by van der Horst et al. concluded that overweight participants were more likely to consume ready meals compared with normal weight participants [
16]. Other factors that were positively associated with BMI were perceiving ready-made meals as healthy and enjoying the taste of convenience foods [
16]. Larson et al. reported that young adults more frequently participating in food preparation and less frequently consuming fast food were more likely to meet the dietary objectives of Healthy People 2010 for fat, calcium, and fruit and vegetables [
15].
The current study also explored cooking confidence as a possible factor influencing dietary intake and BMI; however, there was not significance relationship of cooking confidence with neither dietary intake of fruit and vegetables nor BMI. There is limited research currently addressing cooking confidence, but a critical review assessing the theory of planned behavior notes that self-efficacy is often viewed as a concept related to behavior [
28]. Theoretically, the more individuals believe in their capability to achieve different levels of performance, the more likely behavior change will happen [
29]. The more confidence an individual has in his/her ability to cook, read a recipe, or try new foods, the more likely he/she is to frequently participate in these activities. This lack of concordance between cooking confidence and dietary intake merits further exploration.
Self-instruction for intention of healthful mealtime behavior (i.e., planning for healthful meals and snacks) and self-regulation for healthful mealtime behavior (i.e., self-reported healthful meal-time behavior) predicted greater fruit and vegetable intake in this sample of young adult college students. Additionally, those with higher scores for self-regulation for healthful mealtime behavior had lower BMIs. Few studies examine the specific relationship of these variables to dietary intake and health, but Ducrot et al. [
30] notes that compared to individuals that do not practice meal planning behaviors, meal planners were more likely to better adhere to the dietary guidelines and consume a variety of food. Meal planning was also associated with less likelihood of overweight an obesity in women, and obesity in men [
30]. Meal planning behaviors examined in the study included frequency of planning meals ahead of time, grocery shopping and cooking [
30]. Ducrot et al. also concluded that only small differences existed in overall energy and nutrient intake between individuals who practice meal planning versus those who do not [
30]. However, fruit and vegetable intake was greater in those that frequently practiced meal planning behaviors [
30]. Another study by Laska et al. [
31] found that emerging adults (19–23 years) that practiced food preparation, were more likely to have better diet quality five years in the future including increased fruit and vegetable intake and decreased consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. Research also indicates that diet quality may be related to time spent preparing food [
31]. Spending more time on food preparation at home is associated with indicators of higher diet quality, including increased vegetable and fruit intake [
32]. The theory of planned behavior also suggests that intention is an important attitude toward action [
29]. An individual’s intention to perform (or not perform) a specific action or behavior is the immediate, most significant determinant of that action [
28]. While the theory of planned behavior provides theoretical evidence to support the relationship between dietary intake, BMI, and meal planning behaviors, more research is needed [
28,
29].
Previous research also suggests that healthy behaviors tend to cluster together. In a study by Colby et al. [
33], individuals that reported more healthful behaviors consumed more fruits and vegetables, had greater intention for meal planning and mealtime behaviors, consumed less fat and calories from sugar-sweetened beverages, reported greater physical activity, and had a lower average BMI compared to more at-risk individuals [
33]. Another analysis using Project WebHealth data reported similar findings, suggesting that individuals reporting more healthful behaviors had greater fruit and vegetable intake and physical activity, and lower BMI than at-risk individuals of the same sex [
34]. Although the current study was not a cluster analysis and the level of physical activity, amount of fat and calories from sugar sweetened beverages is not reported in this manuscript, certain healthful behaviors did show association with fruit and vegetable intake and BMI. Individuals who indicated use of more complex cooking skills and meal planning behaviors were related to greater fruit and vegetable intake and lower BMI.
With the positive association of meal planning behaviors and cooking more frequently, including classes on meal preparation skills in wellness interventions maybe beneficial in improving diet quality and healthier food choices. Utter et al. reported in a longitudinal study of teens and young adults that those who reported greater perceived adequacy of cooking skills at 18–23 years of age had greater odds of having healthful dietary behaviors at ages 30–35 years of age [
35]. However, the mode of the delivery of the lessons and frequency may determine if a behavior change occurs. Clifford et al. reported that four weekly episodes of an on-line cooking show increased knowledge about healthful dietary behaviors, but did not change behavior in off-campus college students [
36]. Levy and Auld reported that four 2 h cooking classes and a supermarket tour to college students enhance the attitude towards cooking and increased cooking confidence, but did not change dietary behavior [
37]. In contrast, Bernando et al. demonstrated that a six-week healthy cooking intervention (weekly meetings of 3 h each) increases in cooking confidence for basic cooking techniques and use of fruits and vegetables, accessibility and availability of fruits and vegetables in the home, self-reported knowledge of cooking terms and techniques, and decreases in consumption of fast-food [
38].
Strengths of this study were its large, diverse sample and use of a comprehensive evaluation of fruit and vegetable intake using validated evaluation tools (NCI Fruit and Vegetable Screener). This study also used measured height and weight, eliminating risk of false self-reporting. However, study limitations should also be considered when interpreting results. Inclusion criteria for GetFRVUED were specific and only those at risk for unhealthful behavior were included. Measuring behaviors by self-report may have also been influenced by social desirability. Although a validated questionnaire was used, the questions assessing cooking patterns could be a limitation due to the timing of survey administration. The survey was administered upon arrival to campus and queried ‘how often in the past month’ participants engaged in specific tasks and consumed certain products. Responses relied on the students’ understanding of the that the timeframe being assessed was the time prior to coming to campus. Additionally, this was a study of association only, and that the causal pathway remains conjectural at this point. Students more attentive to their weight and health overall, for instance, may also be more motivated to learn cooking skills and prepare their own meals. Although this was a geographically diverse sample, the recruitment was through convenience sampling, thus, results may not be generalizable to all college students.