Health Benefits of Urban Allotment Gardening: Improved Physical and Psychological Well-Being and Social Integration
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials
2.1. Site Description
2.2. Participants
2.3. Health Outcomes
- (1)
- Perceived general health was measured by a single question “How do you rate your health in general?” Responses were scored on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (Poor) to 5 (Excellent). This measure is known to be related to morbidity and mortality rates and is a strong predictor of health status [36,37]. In this section, gardeners were also asked to report how strongly they felt that their perceived general health was improved relative to before participating in gardening, which was scored on a four-point scale ranging from “No change” to “Strongly improved.”
- (2)
- Subjective health complaints were measured with a 10-item symptom checklist (feeling fatigue or tired, poor appetite, difficulty falling asleep, headache, constipation, lack of facial expression, hypothermia, catching a cold easily, out of breath during daily physical activities, feeling muscle weakness), which was modified from the Subjective Health Complaints Inventory [38]. The total number of health complaints was used as a measure of subjective health complaints, ranging from 0 to 10.
- (3)
- Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using self-reported height and weight. BMI is related to overall health and obesity, cardiovascular mortality and morbidity [39]. BMI values in excess of 25 and 30 are considered as overweight and obese, respectively.
- (4)
- Mental health was assessed using the 12-item General Health Questionnaire, which is the most extensively used self-report instrument for measuring common mental disorders, such as anxiety and depression [40]. For each question, responses indicating distress score 1 and those indicating no or limited distress score 0. The scores across the 12 items were summed, ranging from 0 to 12.
- (5)
- Social cohesion was assessed with the Social Cohesion and Trust Scale [41]. This scale asked respondents how they agreed with statements about their neighbours. Responses of each of these items were scored on a four-point scale ranging from 0 (Disagree strongly) to 4 (Agree strongly). The scores across the five items were summed, ranging from 0 to 20.
2.4. Socio-Demographic and Lifestyle Variables
2.5. Motivation, Frequency and Duration of Gardening
2.6. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Sample Description
3.2. Comparison of Gardeners and Non-Gardeners
3.3. Frequency and Duration of Gardening
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Gardeners | Non-Gardeners | Statistical Significance | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | |||
Gender | Female | 52 | 31.9 | 92 | 58.2 | χ2 = 21.43, df = 1, p < 0.001 |
Male | 111 | 68.1 | 66 | 41.8 | ||
Household income | Less than ¥3,000,000 ($30,000) | 40 | 37.4 | 60 | 40.5 | χ2 = 3.58, df = 5, p = 0.61 |
¥3,010,000–5,000,000 | 25 | 23.4 | 38 | 25.7 | ||
¥5,010,000–7,000,000 | 13 | 12.1 | 22 | 14.9 | ||
¥7,010,000–10,000,000 | 17 | 15.9 | 13 | 8.8 | ||
¥10,010,000–15,000,000 | 9 | 8.4 | 10 | 6.8 | ||
Over ¥15,000,000 | 3 | 2.8 | 5 | 3.4 | ||
Employment status | Student | 3 | 1.9 | 5 | 3.2 | χ2 = 14.52, df = 7, p = 0.04 |
Housewife/househusband | 30 | 19.2 | 37 | 23.7 | ||
Irregular employee | 11 | 7.1 | 21 | 13.5 | ||
Self-employed | 13 | 8.3 | 12 | 7.7 | ||
Regular employee | 42 | 26.9 | 28 | 17.9 | ||
Unemployed | 13 | 8.3 | 20 | 12.8 | ||
Retiree | 43 | 27.6 | 28 | 17.9 | ||
Others | 1 | 0.6 | 5 | 3.2 | ||
Smoking | Never | 140 | 87.5 | 138 | 87.3 | χ2 = 0.90, df = 3, p = 0.82 |
Seldom | 3 | 1.9 | 2 | 1.3 | ||
Sometimes | 15 | 9.4 | 14 | 8.9 | ||
Often | 2 | 1.3 | 4 | 2.5 | ||
Drinking alcohol | Never | 49 | 30.6 | 59 | 37.3 | χ2 = 8.57, df = 3, p = 0.04 |
Seldom | 39 | 24.4 | 47 | 29.7 | ||
Sometimes | 50 | 31.3 | 44 | 27.8 | ||
Often | 22 | 13.8 | 8 | 5.1 | ||
Vegetable intake | Seldom | 3 | 1.9 | 17 | 10.7 | χ2 = 35.22, df = 2, p < 0.001 |
Sometimes | 71 | 44.1 | 104 | 65.4 | ||
Often | 87 | 54.0 | 38 | 23.9 |
Characteristics | Gardeners | Non-Gardeners | Statistical Significance | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
Age (years) | 61.9 | 17.1 | 61.0 | 16.4 | F (1302) = 0.25, p = 0.62 |
Nature relatedness | 3.6 | 0.6 | 3.6 | 0.6 | F (1319) = 0.31, p = 0.58 |
Physical activity levels (days per week) | 3.9 | 2.3 | 3.9 | 3.3 | F (1306) = 0.001, p = 0.98 |
Explanatory Variables | Perceived General Health | Subjective Health Complaints | BMI | General Mental Health | Social Cohesion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model (i) | |||||
Age | −0.02 (0.01) ** | −0.01 (0.01) | 0.02 (0.01) | −0.02 (0.01) | 0.04 (0.02) * |
Gender (male) | 0.55 (0.27) * | −0.46 (0.19) * | 2.40 (0.38) *** | −0.28 (0.45) | 0.72 (0.61) |
Nature relatedness | 0.50 (0.23) * | 0.08 (0.17) | −0.76 (0.33) * | 0.26 (0.35) | 0.43 (0.49) |
Household income (¥3,010,000–5,000,000) | NA | −0.33 (0.24) | NA | −0.52 (0.51) | 0.28 (0.71) |
Household income (¥5,010,000–7,000,000) | NA | −0.50 (0.31) | NA | −0.82 (0.65) | 0.56 (0.91) |
Household income (¥7,010,000–10,000,000) | NA | −0.08 (0.34) | NA | −1.26 (0.71) | 0.12 (1.00) |
Household income (¥10,010,000–15,000,000) | NA | −0.47 (0.45) | NA | −1.65 (0.95) | 2.4 (1.32) |
Household income (over ¥15,000,000) | NA | 0.13 (0.54) | NA | −1.84 (1.12) | 1.76 (1.57) |
Employment status (student) | 3.32 (1.38) | NA | NA | −3.42 (1.84) | NA |
Employment status (housewife/househusband) | 0.06 (0.51) | NA | NA | 0.73 (0.70) | NA |
Employment status (irregular employee) | 0.04 (0.53) | NA | NA | 0.25 (0.78) | NA |
Employment status (self-employed) | 0.31 (0.51) | NA | NA | −0.71 (0.78) | NA |
Employment status (unemployed) | −0.48 (0.56) | NA | NA | 0.74 (0.86) | NA |
Employment status (retiree) | −0.46 (0.44) | NA | NA | 0.03 (0.73) | NA |
Employment status (others) | 0.17 (0.94) | NA | NA | −1.45 (1.40) | NA |
Frequency of smoking | −0.32 (0.18) | 0.16 (0.13) | 0.00 (0.26) | 0.56 (0.27) * | 0.65 (0.38) |
Frequency of drinking alcohol | 0.04 (0.14) | 0.04 (0.10) | 0.10 (0.20) | 0.45 (0.21) * | 0.54 (0.29) |
Frequency of vegetable intake | 0.81 (0.22) *** | −0.41 (0.16) ** | 0.12 (0.32) | −1.24 (0.34) *** | 0.51 (0.47) |
Physical activity levels | 0.15 (0.06) ** | −0.06 (0.03) * | 0.00 (0.07) | −0.06 (0.07) | 0.01 (0.10) |
Model (ii) | |||||
Model (i) + Respondent type (gardener) | 1.40 (0.29) *** | −0.43 (0.21) * | 0.56 (0.39) | −0.91 (0.42) * | 1.57 (0.57) *** |
Model (iii) | |||||
Model (i) + Frequency of gardening (times per month) | 0.01 (0.02) | −0.01 (0.01) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) | 0.08 (0.04) |
Model (i) + Duration of gardening (monthly total minutes) | 0.06 (0.55) | −0.62 (0.32) | −0.04 (0.87) | −0.48 (0.64) | 0.96 (1.14) |
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Soga, M.; Cox, D.T.C.; Yamaura, Y.; Gaston, K.J.; Kurisu, K.; Hanaki, K. Health Benefits of Urban Allotment Gardening: Improved Physical and Psychological Well-Being and Social Integration. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010071
Soga M, Cox DTC, Yamaura Y, Gaston KJ, Kurisu K, Hanaki K. Health Benefits of Urban Allotment Gardening: Improved Physical and Psychological Well-Being and Social Integration. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(1):71. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010071
Chicago/Turabian StyleSoga, Masashi, Daniel T. C. Cox, Yuichi Yamaura, Kevin J. Gaston, Kiyo Kurisu, and Keisuke Hanaki. 2017. "Health Benefits of Urban Allotment Gardening: Improved Physical and Psychological Well-Being and Social Integration" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 1: 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010071
APA StyleSoga, M., Cox, D. T. C., Yamaura, Y., Gaston, K. J., Kurisu, K., & Hanaki, K. (2017). Health Benefits of Urban Allotment Gardening: Improved Physical and Psychological Well-Being and Social Integration. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010071