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Volume 13
Issue 2
10.3390/ijerph13020221
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Article

Pollution and Oral Bioaccessibility of Pb in Soils of Villages and Cities with a Long Habitation History

by
Nikolaj Walraven
1,*,
Martine Bakker
2,
Bertil Van Os
3,
Gerard Klaver
4,
Jack Jacobus Middelburg
5 and
Gareth Davies
6
1
GeoConnect, Meester Dekkerstraat 4, Castricum 1901 PV, The Netherlands
2
Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, Bilthoven 3720 BA, The Netherlands
3
Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed, Cultural Heritage Agency, P.O. Box 1600, Amersfoort 3800 BP, The Netherlands
4
Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM), 3 Avenue Claude-Guillemin, BP 36009, Orléans Cedex 2 45060, The Netherlands
5
Department of Earth Sciences, University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80021, Utrecht 3508 TA, The Netherlands
6
Geology & Geochemistry, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Academic Editor: Howard W. Mielke
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13(2), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13020221
Received: 7 January 2016 / Revised: 4 February 2016 / Accepted: 5 February 2016 / Published: 17 February 2016
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lead: Risk Assessment and Health Effects)
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Abstract

The Dutch cities Utrecht and Wijk bij Duurstede were founded by the Romans around 50 B.C. and the village Fijnaart and Graft-De Rijp around 1600 A.D. The soils of these villages are polluted with Pb (up to ~5000 mg/kg). Lead isotope ratios were used to trace the sources of Pb pollution in the urban soils. In ~75% of the urban soils the source of the Pb pollution was a mixture of glazed potsherd, sherds of glazed roof tiles, building remnants (Pb sheets), metal slag, Pb-based paint flakes and coal ashes. These anthropogenic Pb sources most likely entered the urban soils due to historical smelting activities, renovation and demolition of houses, disposal of coal ashes and raising and fertilization of land with city waste. Since many houses still contain Pb-based building materials, careless renovation or demolition can cause new or more extensive Pb pollution in urban soils. In ~25% of the studied urban topsoils, Pb isotope compositions suggest Pb pollution was caused by incinerator ash and/or gasoline Pb suggesting atmospheric deposition as the major source. The bioaccessible Pb fraction of 14 selected urban soils was determined with an in vitro test and varied from 16% to 82% of total Pb. The bioaccessibility appears related to the chemical composition and grain size of the primary Pb phases and pollution age. Risk assessment based on the in vitro test results imply that risk to children may be underestimated in ~90% of the studied sample sites (13 out of 14). View Full-Text
Keywords: lead; pollution; soil; isotopes; sources; oral; bioaccessibility lead; pollution; soil; isotopes; sources; oral; bioaccessibility
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MDPI and ACS Style

Walraven, N.; Bakker, M.; Van Os, B.; Klaver, G.; Middelburg, J.J.; Davies, G. Pollution and Oral Bioaccessibility of Pb in Soils of Villages and Cities with a Long Habitation History. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13020221

AMA Style

Walraven N, Bakker M, Van Os B, Klaver G, Middelburg JJ, Davies G. Pollution and Oral Bioaccessibility of Pb in Soils of Villages and Cities with a Long Habitation History. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2016; 13(2):221. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13020221

Chicago/Turabian Style

Walraven, Nikolaj, Martine Bakker, Bertil Van Os, Gerard Klaver, Jack J. Middelburg, and Gareth Davies. 2016. "Pollution and Oral Bioaccessibility of Pb in Soils of Villages and Cities with a Long Habitation History" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13, no. 2: 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13020221

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