Effect of Pesticide Exposure on Immunological, Hematological and Biochemical Parameters in Thai Orchid Farmers— A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Participants & Areas
2.2. Sample Collection
2.3. Measurement of Plasma and Erythrocyte Cholinesterases
2.4. Lymphocyte Subpopulations
2.5. Serum Immunoglobulins
2.6. Lysozyme Assay
2.7. Hematological and Blood Biochemical Tests
2.8. Mitogen Stimulation Assay
2.9. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Study Population
Characteristics | Orchid farmer Mean ± S.D. | Control Mean ± S.D. | p-Value # |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 41.97 ± 9.23 | 38.82 ± 10.38 | 0.076 |
Characteristics | n (%) | n (%) | p-Values § |
Gender - Men | 30 (46.9) | 33 (55.0) | 0.234 |
Married | 47 (73.4) | 38 (63.3) | 0.154 |
Cigarette smoker | 8 (12.5) | 11 (18.3) | 0.257 |
Alcohol user | 15 (23.4) | 20 (33.3) | 0.153 |
Ethnicity: | |||
Thai | 56 (87.5) | 60 (100) | n/a |
Hill tribes | 8 (12.5) | 0 (0) | |
Education: | |||
Primary school or uneducated | 48 (75.0) | 18 (30.0) | <0.001 |
Secondary school or higher | 16 (25.0) | 42 (70.0) | |
Residential area: | |||
On farmland | 53 (82.5) | - | |
Outside farmland | 11 (17.5) | - | |
Duration of working in farm (year) a | 15.65 (0.3–37) | - | |
Farm area (rai) a | 10.51 (2–70) | - |
Pesticides | Number of Farmers (n = 64)(%) # | Chemical Class | Toxicological Classes * |
---|---|---|---|
Insecticide | 64 (100) | ||
Cypermethrin | 49 (76.6) | Pyrethroid | Ib |
Methomyl | 35 (54.7) | Carbamate | Ib |
Abamectin | 22 (34.4) | Botanical | Not listed |
Chlorpyrifos | 19 (29.7) | Organophosphate | II |
EPN | 10 (15.6) | Organophosphate | Ia |
Carbosulfan | 8 (12.5) | N-Methyl carbamate | II |
Omethoate | 7 (10.9) | Organophosphate | Ib |
Fungicide | 63 (98.4) | ||
Captan | 40 (62.5) | Thiophthalimide | U |
Mancozeb | 39 (60.9) | Dithiocarbamate, inorganic zinc | U |
Carbendazim | 12 (18.8) | Benzimidazole | U |
Herbicide | 57 (89.1) | ||
Glyphosate | 35 (54.7) | Phosphonoglycine | U |
Paraquat | 21 (32.8) | Bipyridylium | II |
3.2. Erythrocytes and Plasma Cholinesterases
Enzymes (U/L) | Subjects | Normal Ranges | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
OP/CB Using Farmers | PY Using Farmers | Controls | ||
Plasma ChE | ||||
Male | 4110.82 ± 1153.54 ** (n = 24) | 4623.67 ± 1168.45 (n = 6) | 5291.48 ± 1191.15 (n = 33) | >4900 |
Female | 3749.76 ± 1206.88 ** (n = 28) | 3741.56 ± 906.34 (n = 6) | 4752.30 ± 1016.69 (n = 27) | >4300 |
Erythrocyte ChE | 7958.55 ± 2280.83 (n = 52) | 7958.55 ± 2222.82 (n = 12) | 8137.39 ± 1779.88 (n = 60) | 8700–11,600 |
3.3. Serum Immunoglobulin Levels
Immunoglobulin Isotypes (mg/dL) | Orchid Farmers (n = 64) | Controls (n = 60) | p-Values | Reference Ranges # |
---|---|---|---|---|
IgG | 1094.27 ± 219.40 | 1090.46 ± 204.02 | 0.920 | 700–1600 |
IgA | 308.49 ± 109.01 | 331.06 ± 148.23 | 0.339 | 70–400 |
IgM | 151.25 ± 63.52 | 148.00 ± 81.93 | 0.805 | 40–230 |
IgE | 0.031 ± 0.011 | 0.018 ± 0.007 | 0.009 ** | <0.024 |
3.4. Lymphocyte Subpopulations and Functional Study
Immunophenotypes (%) | Orchid Farmers (n = 64) | Controls (n = 60) | p-Values | Reference Ranges # |
---|---|---|---|---|
CD4+ | 33.82 ± 7.29 | 33.72 ± 5.81 | 0.930 | 24.10–50.70 |
CD8+ | 31.76 ± 5.97 | 30.27 ± 4.37 | 0.282 | 19.50–44.60 (Female) |
35.91 ± 7.40 | 35.40 ± 5.33 | 0.589 | 17.70–42.70 (Male) | |
CD4:CD8 ratio | 1.07 ± 0.40 | 1.07 ± 0.33 | 0.928 | 0.65–2.49 |
CD3+ | 66.74 ± 8.15 | 64.89 ± 6.87 | 0.349 | 57.80–82.70 (Female) |
62.0 ± 8.31 | 61.86 ± 7.12 | 0.944 | 46.20–78.90 (Male) | |
CD19+ | 11.61 ± 4.09 | 14.32 ± 4.23 | <0.001 *** | 7.70–25.40 |
CD16+/CD56+ | 15.75 ± 7.87 | 15.77 ± 7.64 | 0.990 | 6.40–31.10 (Female) |
19.63 ± 8.27 | 18.88 ± 6.93 | 0.698 | 3.90–38.50 (Male) |
Stimulation Index (S.I.) | Orchid Farmers (n = 64) | Controls (n = 60) | p-Values |
---|---|---|---|
Concanavalin A (Con A) | 2.48 ± 1.53 | 2.69 ± 1.41 | 0.256 |
Pokeweed mitogen (PWM) | 1.90 ± 0.76 | 2.12 ± 0.69 | 0.095 |
3.5. Serum Lysozyme Levels
3.6. Analysis of Hematological and Biochemical Parameters
Parameters | Orchid Farmers (n = 64) | Controls (n = 60) | p-Values | Normal Ranges | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± S.D. | % abnormal | Mean ± S.D. | % abnormal | |||
Kidney function profiles | ||||||
BUN (mg/dL) | 12.64 ± 3.70 | 3.1 | 12.43 ± 2.87 | 1.7 | 0.729 | 7–20 |
Creatinine (mg/dL) | 0.86 ± 0.11 (n = 34) | 2.9 | 0.82 ± 0.10 (n = 27) | 3.7 | 0.106 | 0.6–1.1 (Female) |
1.09 ± 0.11 (n = 30) | 0 | 1.09 ± 0.10 (n = 33) | 0 | 0.946 | 0.9–1.3 (Male) | |
Liver function profiles | ||||||
Total protein (g/dL) | 7.59 ± 0.42 | 12.5 | 7.80 ± 0.43 | 25.0 | 0.007 ** | 6–8 |
Albumin (g/dL) | 4.54 ± 0.31 | 3.1 | 4.70 ± 0.32 | 16.7 | 0.007 ** | 3.5–5 |
Globulin (g/dL) | 3.05 ± 0.32 | 7.8 | 3.10 ± 0.33 | 8.3 | 0.370 | 1.5–3.5 |
AST (U/L) | 22.45 ± 1.27 | 3.1 | 21.36 ± 1.30 | 3.3 | 0.278 | 0–37 |
ALT (U/L) | 17.64 ± 1.74 | 7.8 | 20.44 ± 1.91 | 18.3 | 0.175 | 0–40 |
ALP (U/L) | 64.78 ± 16.98 | 0 | 71.08 ± 19.30 | 3.3 | 0.056 | 26–117 |
Parameters | Orchid Farmers (n = 64) | Controls (n = 60) | p-Values | Normal Ranges | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± S.D. | % abnormal | Mean ± S.D. | % abnormal | |||
WBC count (103/mm3) | 7.13 ± 1.61 | 1.6 | 7.33 ± 1.67 | 3.3 | 0.516 | 4–11 |
Neutrophil (%) | 53.23 ± 10.30 | 25.0 | 51.38 ± 9.54 | 25.0 | 0.302 | 45–75 |
Lymphocyte (%) | 37.44 ± 8.69 | 20.3 | 39.43 ± 7.48 | 20.0 | 0.174 | 20–45 |
Monocyte (%) | 5.19 ± 3.45 | 20.3 | 5.40 ± 3.22 | 18.3 | 0.499 | 2–10 |
Eosinophil (%) | 4.13 ± 4.13 | 84.4 | 3.75 ± 4.56 | 76.7 | 0.801 | 4–6 |
Basophil (%) | 0.03 ± 0.18 | 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0 | 0.169 | 0–1 |
RBC count (106/mm3) | 4.56 ± 0.60 | 70.6 | 4.68 ± 0.51 | 55.6 | 0.402 | 4.5–5 (Female) |
5.01 ± 0.53 | 26.7 | 5.18 ± 0.44 | 9.1 | 0.162 | 4.5–6 (Male) | |
Hemoglobin (g/dL) | 12.63 ± 1.88 | 35.3 | 13.08 ± 1.29 | 25.9 | 0.292 | 12–16 (Female) |
14.64 ± 1.01 | 26.7 | 14.54 ± 1.08 | 27.3 | 0.703 | 14–18 (Male) | |
Hematocrit (%) | 38.07 ± 5.22 | 35.3 | 39.50 ± 3.88 | 11.1 | 0.238 | 35–45 (Female) |
43.59 ± 3.08 | 20.0 | 43.21 ± 2.55 | 18.2 | 0.597 | 41–51 (Male) | |
MCV (fL) | 85.65 ± 7.72 | 28.1 | 84.19 ± 5.54 | 26.7 | 0.231 | 82–96 |
MCH (pg) | 28.57 ± 3.04 | 32.8 | 28.10 ± 2.33 | 30.0 | 0.338 | 27–32 |
MCHC (g/dL) | 33.34 ± 1.10 | 12.5 | 33.38 ± 1.03 | 8.3 | 0.811 | 32–36 |
Platelet count (103/mm3) | 257.73 ± 58.63 | 7.8 | 265.92 ± 62.58 | 1.7 | 0.454 | 150–400 |
4. Discussions
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Abbreviations
ALT | alanine aminotransferase |
ALP | alkaline phosphatase |
AST | aspartate aminotransferase |
BUN | blood urea nitrogen |
CM | carbamate |
Con A | concanavalin A |
CV | coefficient of variation |
MCH | mean corpuscular hemoglobin |
MCHC | mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration |
MCV | mean corpuscular volume |
MTT | 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide |
OP | organophosphate |
PBMC | peripheral blood mononuclear cells |
PPE | personal protective equipment |
PWM | pokeweed mitogen |
PY | pyrethroid |
Conflicts of Interest
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Aroonvilairat, S.; Kespichayawattana, W.; Sornprachum, T.; Chaisuriya, P.; Siwadune, T.; Ratanabanangkoon, K. Effect of Pesticide Exposure on Immunological, Hematological and Biochemical Parameters in Thai Orchid Farmers— A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 5846-5861. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120605846
Aroonvilairat S, Kespichayawattana W, Sornprachum T, Chaisuriya P, Siwadune T, Ratanabanangkoon K. Effect of Pesticide Exposure on Immunological, Hematological and Biochemical Parameters in Thai Orchid Farmers— A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(6):5846-5861. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120605846
Chicago/Turabian StyleAroonvilairat, Soraya, Wannapa Kespichayawattana, Thiwaree Sornprachum, Papada Chaisuriya, Taweeratana Siwadune, and Kavi Ratanabanangkoon. 2015. "Effect of Pesticide Exposure on Immunological, Hematological and Biochemical Parameters in Thai Orchid Farmers— A Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 6: 5846-5861. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120605846