Image Mapping Accuracy Evaluation Using UAV with Standalone, Differential (RTK), and PPP GNSS Positioning Techniques in an Abandoned Mine Site
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Applied Positioning Method
2.2.1. Standalone GNSS Positioning
2.2.2. Differential (RTK) GNSS Positioning
2.2.3. Post-Mission PPP Processing
2.3. UAV Data Acquisition
2.4. UAV Image Processing
2.5. Ground Control Point Measurement
2.6. Accuracy Evaluation
2.6.1. Relative Camera Location Accuracy Assessment
2.6.2. GCP-Based Mapping Accuracy Assessment
2.6.3. Comparison of Areal and Volumetric Differences of Mine Tailings
3. Results
3.1. UAV Data Acquisition and Image Processing
3.2. GCP Measurement
3.3. Accuracy Assessment
3.3.1. Estimation of Relative Camera Location Error
3.3.2. Estimation of GCP-Based Image Mapping Error
3.3.3. Areal and Volumetric Differences of Mine Tailings Using Different GNSS Positioning Techniques
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Equipment | Category | Specifications |
---|---|---|
UAV | Model | DJI Phantom 4 RTK |
Imaging sensor | 20 mega pixels | |
GNSS positioning accuracy in RTK mode | Vertical 1.5 cm and 1 ppm (RMS), horizontal 1 cm and 1 ppm (RMS) |
Equipment | Category | Specifications |
---|---|---|
Network RTK GNSS receiver | Model | Emlid Reach RS2 |
Positioning accuracy in RTK mode | Vertical 1.4 cm and 1 ppm (RMS), Horizontal 0.7 cm and 1 ppm (RMS) |
Category | Specifications |
---|---|
Number of UAV image datasets | Three flights using network RTK GNSS positionings (RTK1, RTK2, and RTK3), three flights using standalone GNSS positioning (GNSS1, GNSS2, and GNSS3), and three post-mission processing datasets using PPP positioning on images with standalone GNSS positioning (PPP1, PPP2, and PPP3) |
Number of images acquired per flight | 77 |
Flight height | 110 m above ground level at starting point of flights |
Flight duration | 4 min, 57–59 s |
Forward overlap | 75% |
Side overlap | 70% |
Number of images used for image mosaicking | 73 |
Category | Specifications |
---|---|
Number of GCPs | 12 |
Number of measurements for averaging | 5 |
Case | X (cm) | Y (cm) | Z (cm) | XY Error (cm) | Total Error (cm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
RTK1 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 2.1 |
RTK2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 1.4 |
RTK3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 1.3 |
GNSS1 | 20.0 | 25.0 | 117.7 | 32.0 | 122.0 |
GNSS2 | 9.8 | 15.2 | 107.9 | 18.1 | 109.4 |
GNSS3 | 15.2 | 21.2 | 101.6 | 26.0 | 104.9 |
PPP1 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 26.2 | 4.4 | 26.6 |
PPP2 | 4.1 | 2.3 | 26.8 | 4.8 | 27.2 |
PPP3 | 13.4 | 8.0 | 49.9 | 15.6 | 52.2 |
Case | X (cm) | Y (cm) | Z (cm) | XY Error (cm) | Total Error (cm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
RTK1 | 8.5 | 6.1 | 36.4 | 11.0 | 38.3 |
RTK2 | 5.3 | 4.6 | 34.7 | 7.9 | 36.1 |
RTK3 | 4.3 | 4.8 | 17.7 | 7.2 | 19.6 |
GNSS1 | 149.3 | 28.3 | 396.0 | 155.1 | 434.9 |
GNSS2 | 152.1 | 51.6 | 230.9 | 168.2 | 303.5 |
GNSS3 | 137.1 | 82.4 | 133.3 | 169.0 | 227.0 |
PPP1 | 81.7 | 35.1 | 155.6 | 89.4 | 181.3 |
PPP2 | 64.5 | 10.0 | 73.7 | 65.5 | 102.0 |
PPP3 | 102.0 | 14.6 | 32.2 | 103.5 | 109.8 |
Case | 2D Area (m2) | Surface Area (m2) | Volume (m3) | Difference from RTK1 Volume (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
RTK1 | 16,129.5 | 17,071.6 | 52,482.4 | - |
RTK2 | 16,128.0 | 17,083.8 | 52,279.0 | −0.4 |
RTK3 | 16,130.2 | 17,136.4 | 52,466.6 | 0.0 |
GNSS1 | 16,129.4 | 17,063.0 | 71,291.4 | 35.8 |
GNSS2 | 16,122.7 | 17,068.7 | 72,125.1 | 37.4 |
GNSS3 | 16,131.7 | 17,120.0 | 68,582.1 | 30.7 |
PPP1 | 16,125.6 | 17,041.6 | 57,540.4 | 9.6 |
PPP2 | 16,125.6 | 17,058.4 | 58,542.2 | 11.6 |
PPP3 | 16,128.9 | 17,114.2 | 65,139.2 | 24.1 |
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Kim, H.; Hyun, C.-U.; Park, H.-D.; Cha, J. Image Mapping Accuracy Evaluation Using UAV with Standalone, Differential (RTK), and PPP GNSS Positioning Techniques in an Abandoned Mine Site. Sensors 2023, 23, 5858. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135858
Kim H, Hyun C-U, Park H-D, Cha J. Image Mapping Accuracy Evaluation Using UAV with Standalone, Differential (RTK), and PPP GNSS Positioning Techniques in an Abandoned Mine Site. Sensors. 2023; 23(13):5858. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135858
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Hanjin, Chang-Uk Hyun, Hyeong-Dong Park, and Jongmun Cha. 2023. "Image Mapping Accuracy Evaluation Using UAV with Standalone, Differential (RTK), and PPP GNSS Positioning Techniques in an Abandoned Mine Site" Sensors 23, no. 13: 5858. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135858