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Article

Patterns of Species Richness and Its Endemism of Beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region of China

by
Yuxian Niu
1,2 and
Guodong Ren
1,2,*
1
The Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
2
College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2024, 16(8), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16080496
Submission received: 8 July 2024 / Revised: 24 July 2024 / Accepted: 8 August 2024 / Published: 14 August 2024
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Abstract

:
The Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region lies between the Mongolia-Xinjiang Zoogeographic Region and the Central China Zoogeographic Region in China, harboring relatively rich biodiversity. This study specifically examined the species diversity, richness and endemic areas of beetles in this area. By analyzing 5965 detailed distribution records of 2047 beetle species in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, the species richness maps were created with a grid size of 0.5°. Additionally, two methods, parsimony analysis of endemism (PAE) and endemicity analysis (EA) were applied to detect areas of endemism (AOEs) with different grid sizes (0.1°, 0.25° and 0.5°), resulting in the identification of three AOEs in the southern mountainous areas of the Taihang Mountains, Yanshan Mountains, and Xiaowutai Mountains. It also verified that AOEs are consistent with the hypothesis that endemic areas are predominantly located in mountain ranges, as proposed by previous related studies. These findings highlight the importance of complex topography and stable climate in shaping AOEs and conserving biodiversity.

1. Introduction

The Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region is a geographically connected and integrated area in North China, covering an area of 218,000 square kilometers. The climates and ecological environments of the three regions are highly compatible, with about 90% of the regional area under the jurisdiction of Hebei Province. Two renowned mountain ranges, the Yanshan and Taihang Mountains, form the backbone of this region. The Yanshan Mountains are situated on the northern side of the North China Plain, covering 14,400,000 hectares, running east to west, spanning latitudes of 39°40′ to 42°10′ N and longitudes of 115°45′ to 119°50′ E, with an average elevation ranging from 500 to 1500 m. The principal peak, Wuling Mountains, stands at 2116 m above sea level [1]. The mountainous terrain features numerous basins and valleys, with the northern part connecting the northeastern region of China to the Mongolia–Xinjiang Zoological Region [2]. The Taihang Mountains, located in the southwestern part of the North China Plain, extend from latitudes 34°35′ to 40°19′ N and longitudes 110°15′ to 116°27′ E. These mountains generally trend north–south, with an average elevation above 1200 m. The northern and central areas reach elevations of about 2000 m, creating a significant contrast with the North China Plain. The highest peak, Xiaowutai Mountains, rises to 2882 m above sea level.
The Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region is unique in China for its combination of plateaus, mountains, hills, plains, lakes, and seashores. It is bordered by the vast North China Plain to the south and the Bohai Sea to the east [3]. The region experiences a temperate continental monsoon climate with four distinct seasons. The complex topography and favorable climatic conditions have fostered a diverse array of beetle species characterized by high species richness and endemism, making this region one of the most significant distribution sites for beetles in China.
Beetles, one of the most abundant groups of organisms on Earth, are widely distributed across all terrestrial ecosystems except Antarctica. They play an indispensable role in maintaining ecosystem stability. So far, 2064 beetle species have been recorded in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region [4], representing about 6.0% of the total 35,000 known beetle species in China [5]. Investigating the species diversity and geographic distribution of beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region is a crucial element of regional biodiversity conservation.
Species diversity is the main functional unit of biodiversity, and species richness is a significant indicator of this diversity [6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. Species richness results from a series of complex natural processes and is influenced by various factors, including human activities, climate, and environmental conditions [13,14]. While species richness can reflect the relationship between species and their environment, it can also make the spatial distribution of species less accurate, and the level of species richness does not necessarily represent the level of endemism [11,14,15]. The AOEs [16] have become a model for biodiversity research and a foundation for biodiversity conservation [11,17], playing a crucial role in exploring biodiversity hotspots [18]. Many biogeographic and evolutionary studies have applied this method to address practical problems [8,11,19,20,21,22,23,24].
In the present study, a total of 6936 distribution data points for 2965 species of beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region were collected and analyzed for endemism using PAE and EA. The study aimed to achieve the following objectives: (1) by analyzing the distribution data, pinpoint regions within the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei area that exhibit high species richness and identify specific areas where endemic species are concentrated; (2) by comparing regions of high species richness with those identified as AOEs, determine if areas with many species also have a high number of endemic species; (3) verify whether the identified AOEs align with the hypothesis that areas of endemism are predominantly situated in mountain ranges, as suggested by previous related studies [11,14,22,25]. By achieving these objectives, the research contributes to a better understanding of the regional biodiversity and the factors influencing the distribution of beetle species in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region. This information is vital for developing effective conservation strategies and protecting the unique biodiversity of the area [26].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area is located between 36°03′ and 42°40′ N latitude and 113°27′ and 119°50′ E longitude, covering a total area of about 218,000 square kilometers. This region is connected by two major mountain ranges, the Yanshan and Taihang Mountains. While most existing studies on this region focus on diversity analysis and phylogenetic analysis [4,27], there is a notable lack of biogeographic methods to further analyze the distribution patterns of beetles in this area.

2.2. Data Collection

A comprehensive database of beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region was established, incorporating 6936 pieces of distribution information for 2965 species. The majority of these data were sourced from domestic and international books, published dissertations, and specimen information from the collection of the Museum of Hebei University [28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41]. Detailed coordinates were determined online through Google Earth (https://map.jiqrxx.com/ (accessed on 13 March 2024)), with imprecise distribution records (e.g., those only specifying provinces) being removed. Records at the district and county level were replaced by the coordinates of the local administrative center. Ultimately, 5965 detailed distributional records for 2047 species were used in the analysis.

2.3. Mapping Species Richness and Assessing Sampling Bias

Using the geographic distribution database of beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, the transformed geographic distribution information was imported into ArcGIS to generate a species richness pattern map with a 0.5° × 0.5° grid. Each grid contains a different number of species, shown with different colors on the map, resulting in 76 grid cells with information.
The adequacy of the data used for the study directly affects the accuracy of the identified areas of endemism. To assess the completeness of the study data, a matrix analysis was performed using EstimateS v9.1 to construct species accumulation curves [42]. Additionally, a linear regression was fitted to assess the completeness of the data collection, using a logarithmic transformation of the number of individuals to species richness on a 0.5° grid [23,43].

2.4. Identification of Areas of Endemism

In this study, PAE and EA were used to analyze areas of beetle endemism in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, employing grid sizes of 0.1°, 0.25°, and 0.5°, respectively.
The PAE [44,45] creates 0–1 matrices based on three different grid sizes, which also needs to include a “root” with species richness of 0 as an outgroup of the tree [46]. Matrix analysis was performed using the New Technology Search in TNT v1.1 with default parameters. A strict consensus of all resulting trees was built, and branches with ≥50% support were selected as candidates for AOEs [47]. The results were overlaid and plotted in ArcGIS [22,48].
The EA was performed using NDM/VNDM v3.1 [49]. The geographic distribution information was converted into xyd format via the Gex web page before importing the file [11,14,49,50]. The xyd file was imported into VNDM and set to save with a 0.99 parameter set. Grids containing at least two endemic species and scoring ≥ 10 were retained. The search was repeated 100 times, and overlapping subsets were retained if 50% of the species were unique, with default values for other parameters. The scores of each species in the obtained consensual area were counted, and the results were overlaid and plotted in ArcGIS [11,14,22,51,52].
Finally, the Jacard coefficient is utilized to compare the similarities and differences of the obtained endemic regions. Specific formula: Cj = j/(a + b − j). Where j denotes the number of families, genera and species common to the two regions, and a and b, denote the number of families, genera and species in the two regions, respectively.

3. Results

3.1. Assessment of Sampling Bias

Plotting species accumulation curves on a 0.5° grid, the result showed that the average number of species obtained through bootstrap analysis was approximately 2414. The data used for analysis had a completeness of 84.8% (Figure 1A), indicating that a large portion of the available data was included in the study. The species accumulation curves showed that there was no shortage of collection efforts. In Figure 1B, linear regression curves were plotted to compare the observed species richness within each grid to the predicted values. The ratio of observed to predicted species richness was greater than 64.1%, and the R2 value of the linear regression was 97.6%, indicating a strong correlation between the observed and predicted species richness.

3.2. Species Richness Model

Based on the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region beetle database, the species distribution data with accurate latitude and longitude information were imported into Arc-GIS to construct a species richness pattern map of the region using a 0.5° grid size (Figure 2). The results of the analysis revealed a wide distribution of beetles across the region. However, there were significant differences in species richness between different grid cells. The abundance of beetles showed a northwestward trend, indicating that there were higher numbers of beetles in the northwestern part of the region. Specifically, the Taihang Mountains area in southwestern Hebei, the Yanshan Mountains area in the east, and the Xiaowutai Mountains located between these two areas exhibited a higher abundance of beetles. On the other hand, species richness was found to be lower in the southeastern plains and the northwestern highlands of the region.

3.3. Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity

Different branching order maps were obtained using three different grid sizes: 0.1°, 0.25°, and 0.5°. Among these, the optimal tree under the 0.5° grid was selected as the marquee tree for the AOEs after ensuring strict consensus among the branch trees (Figure 3). From the marquee tree, two branches were selected that met the criteria. One branch belonged to the southern region of the Taihang Mountains (N1–M1), and the other branch belonged to the Yanshan region (D6–D11).
Based on the identification criteria, the analysis identified two AOEs (Figure 4). The Arc-GIS visualization results revealed the AOE of the southern part of the Taihang Mountains (THM) with 425 species, indicating a significant concentration of beetle species in this region. Additionally, the AOE of the Yanshan Mountains (YM) was identified, which had 170 species.

3.4. Endemicity Analysis

In the EA analysis, consensus regions were obtained using three different grid sizes: 0.1°, 0.25°, and 0.5°. By overlaying the consensus regions with the three grid sizes in Arc-GIS, a total of three AOEs were identified (Figure 5). These AOEs are associated with the Taihang Mountains Range, Yanshan Mountains Range, and Xiaowutai Mountains Range in Hebei Province. These identified consensus regions represent areas within the Taihang Mountains Range, Yanshan Mountains Range, and Xiaowutais Mountains Range that exhibit high levels of endemism for beetle species. Species scores within each consensus region are tallied in Supplementary Materials (Table S1).
(1)
Southern Taihang Mountains (THM): This region was recognized by all three grid sizes, resulting in 22 consensus regions (Figure S2). Two consensus regions (8 and 10) were identified at the 0.1° grid scale, containing 48 and 17 species, respectively, with scores of 48 and 17. Under the 0.25° grid, consensus regions 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 were identified, with scores ranging from 4.499 to 60. Consensus regions 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, and 38 were identified under the 0.5° grid. The scores are 10.833, 14.5, 12.133, 18.104, 17, 19.271, 14.475, 12.05, 4.499, 13, 16.521, 22, 60, 48. A total of 343 species were contained in these consensus regions.
(2)
Xiaowutai Mountains National Nature Reserve (XWTM): This area was recognized by all three grid sizes, resulting in five consensus regions: 10, 12, 28, 30, and 37 (Figures S1–S3), scoring 17, 108, 118, 11.502, and 129.5. These consensus regions contained a total of 165 species.
(3)
Yanshan Mountains region (YM): This area was identified at all three grid sizes. Consensus regions 1, 4, 7, 9, 10, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 34, and 35 (Figures S1–S3) were identified, with scores of 60, 18, 22, 17.993, 17, 17, 60, 48, 21.5, 23.226, 22.825, 60 and 22. These consensus regions contained a total of 217 species.
Diversity 16 00496 g005
Figure 5. AOEs formed by overlapping EA methods using three different grid sizes: red shading indicates 0.1° grid; green shading indicates 0.25° grid; blue shading indicates 0.5° grid.
Figure 5. AOEs formed by overlapping EA methods using three different grid sizes: red shading indicates 0.1° grid; green shading indicates 0.25° grid; blue shading indicates 0.5° grid.
Diversity 16 00496 g005

3.5. Jacard Similarity Index Analysis

Jacard similarity calculations for the three endemic regions showed that all three regions showed a very similar level at the family level. At the genus level, all three regions showed moderate similarity. At the species level, the Xiaowutai Mountains and the southern section of the Taihang Mountains showed moderate dissimilarity, while the Yanshan region showed moderate similarity with the Xiaowutai Mountains and the southern section of the Taihang Mountains (Table 1).

4. Discussion

4.1. Consistency of Species Richness Patterns with Areas of Endemism

In summary, the centers of species abundance identified in this study were concentrated in the mountainous areas of the southern Taihang Mountains, the Yan Mountains, and the Xiaowutai Mountains in Hebei Province. Conversely, the plains, plateaus, and basins of northwestern Hebei exhibited a low distribution of species. This result aligns with the observed patterns of beetle species richness in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, corroborating previous reports on Tenebrionidae, aphids, birds, mammals, and plants [11,14,19,21,22,51,53,54,55,56]. These studies also indicated that centers of species richness coincide with centers of endemism, predominantly located in mountainous areas.
Mountainous regions, with their complex topography and diverse habitats, promote an increase in the number of ecological niches [14]. This diversity facilitates the emergence of new species as they adapt to different ecological niches. Additionally, the complex habitats in mountainous regions create barriers to the mass movement of species, leading to increased species formation and differentiation [11,22,23]. The climate stability in these regions reduces the probability of species extinction, providing conditions that support high species richness [57,58].

4.2. AOEs in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region

The endemism of beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region of China was investigated for the first time using PAE and EA, and three AOEs were obtained, which were in the southern region of the Taihang Mountains, the Yanshan Mountains, and the Xiaowutai Mountains.
Southern region of Taihang Mountains. The Taihang Mountains serve as an important natural ecological barrier in North China and provide a refuge for many species [35,59]. During the Pliocene period, the landscape of the Taihang Mountains was characterized by many plains and hills, and species exchange was easy. At the beginning of the Quaternary period, due to the third act of the Himalayan movement, the Taihang Mountains rose in the western part of North China. The terrain trends high in the north and low in the south, and high in the west and low in the east, marking the eastern edge of China’s second terrain ladder and the eastern boundary of the Loess Plateau. This unique topography and geomorphology have nurtured rich natural resources, laying a solid foundation for the formation of endemic regions [60].
When comparing PAE and EA, EA detected more endemic areas in the region and identified a wider range of AOEs, primarily in the southern and central parts of the Taihang Mountains. For instance, Laoya Mountains Forest Park, characterized by rolling hills and a high west-to-low east gradient, boasts rich biodiversity due to terrain differences and altitude variations [37]. Additionally, the Fountain of Youth forest area, located in the eastern foothills of the southern Taihang Mountains, features a treacherous high mountain landscape with peaks rising up to 900 m. This steep terrain supports a rich variety of species [32].
Xiaowutai Mountains. Xiaowutai Mountains, recognized as an endemic area solely by EA, lies at the junction of the Taihang and Yanshan Mountains. It was a plains landscape before the Quaternary, and continental drift brought species of different zonal compositions, with a rich Coleoptera composition in the Xiaowutai Mountains [61]. As a result of the second and third acts of the Himalayan orogenic drive, the Xiaowutai Mountains gradually uplifted and became more treacherous, and biological exchange was impeded. Some species were forced out and some evolved new characteristics, contributing to the formation of endemic areas.
Yanshan Mountains. The Mountains located between the Daxinganling and Taihang Mountains run in an east–west direction. Strong crustal movements during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods uplifted the Yan Mountains [59], creating complex and diverse landforms. This has led to the establishment of various ecological nature reserves and a rich biodiversity in the region.
Both PAE and EA identified the Yanshan Mountains as an area of endemism, although PAE identified a smaller area, primarily focusing on two nature reserves [62]: the Wuling Mountains and the Liaoheyuan Protected Area. Wuling Mountains, located in the middle part of the Yanshan Mountains Range, feature large elevation differences, distinct vertical zone characteristics [63], and complex habitats, supporting a variety of vegetation types and providing a habitat for numerous plants and animals [33]. The Liaoheyuan Protected Area, situated in the transition zone between the plateau and mountains, has a complex environment that supports diverse ecosystems and rich flora and fauna resources [34]. EA, on the other hand, recognized a broader range of areas, including Heilongshan National Forest Park and the Mulan paddocks [41], further highlighting the region’s biodiversity and the importance of its complex topography in supporting endemic species.

4.3. Similarities and Differences among the Three Regions

The three endemic regions contain different endemic species, and all of them have the most endemic species of Cerambycidae. Among the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Coleoptera, Cerambycidae is the dominant taxon, mostly feeding on plants and present in areas with more vegetation. Different ecological nature reserves have been established in the three regions with rich vegetation types, which provide adapted survival sites for the more adaptable taxa of Cerambycidae. This may be the reason for the higher number of endemic species of Cerambycidae. By comparing the similarity coefficients of the three regions, the southern region of Taihang Mountain and Yanshan Mountain showed strong similarity, while the Xiaowutai Mountain region was somewhat different from the other two regions at the level of species rank order elements. We hypothesized to be related to the altitude of Xiaowutai Mountain. It is the highest place in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, with a steep mountainous terrain, a large difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures, and a more pronounced vertical change of vegetation. In order to adapt to the special climate and geographic environment, the species gradually formed the unique species composition of Xiaowutai Mountain.

4.4. Data and Methodological Limitations

In recent years, the beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region of China have been well-studied, and their geographic distribution has been thoroughly documented [11,14,52]. However, inadequate collection remains a significant challenge for biogeographic studies. Despite this, the species accumulation curves at a 0.5° grid resolution in this study indicate an adequate collection, as evidenced by a coefficient of determination (R2) greater than 95%.
Generally, AOEs identified by the two methods, PAE and EA, show some degree of similarity. However, EA tends to identify a wider range of AOEs. This suggests that the AOEs identified by the PAE method are subject to higher and more stringent criteria [11,19,22], resulting in a smaller range of AOEs. Currently, there is no consensus on which method determines more accurate AOEs [54,64,65,66], and it is acknowledged that relying on a single method is insufficient for accurate AOE determination. Consequently, contemporary biogeographic studies typically employ two or more methods for analysis [11,14,67,68].
Additionally, grid size plays a crucial role in the determination of AOEs. Larger grids tend to identify more and larger consensus regions, which can potentially encompass under-collected regions. Conversely, smaller grids are more sensitive to AOEs and can identify more precise consensus regions. However, if the grid size is too small, it can lead to fragmentation of the consensus region [11,22], as observed with the 0.1° grid size in this study. To mitigate this issue, three grid size scales were combined in this study to identify endemic regions effectively.
These methodological considerations underscore the complexity of accurately identifying AOEs and highlight the need for a multifaceted approach that incorporates various methods and grid sizes to achieve more reliable results [11,14,55,67].

5. Conclusions

The endemism of beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region of China was analyzed using two methods: Parsimony Analysis of Endemism (PAE) and Endemicity Analysis (EA). The results indicated that the pattern of species richness was consistent with the areas of endemism. This study identified three consensus regions, all of which are located in mountainous areas. This finding supports our hypothesis that centers of endemism are situated in mountainous regions. The complex vertical gradient changes in mountains create diverse topographies and stable microhabitats, providing habitats and ecological niches for a greater number of beetle species. These conditions also offer more opportunities for population differentiation and the formation of new beetle species. The intricate ecological and geographical environment in mountainous areas acts as a barrier to species communication, leading to reproductive isolation. This isolation fosters species evolution and the emergence of new species. Given these findings, it is crucial to increase efforts to protect the biodiversity in mountainous areas. Future studies on identifying AOEs would benefit from integrating phylogenetic correlation analyses. This approach could provide a more comprehensive understanding of species relationships and evolutionary processes, enhancing the accuracy and reliability of AOE identification. In summary, this study underscores the importance of mountainous regions as centers of endemism for beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region. Protecting these areas is vital for preserving biodiversity and supporting ongoing species evolution. Integrating advanced analytical methods, such as phylogenetic correlation analyses, will further refine our understanding and identification of AOEs in future research.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/d16080496/s1, Table S1: Summary information on the consensus areas of Coleoptera using endemicity analysis (EA), with their total score, number of cells for each consensus area and grid size of each consensus areas; Figure S1: Consensus areas 1–12 detected by endemicity analysis (EA) using 0.1° grid size; Figure S2: Consensus areas 13–28 detected by endemicity analysis (EA) using 0.25° grid size; Figure S3: Consensus areas 29–38 detected by endemicity analysis (EA) using 0.5° grid size; Table S2: Geographical distribution information on the species of Coleoptera in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region of China.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.N.; methodology, Y.N.; software, Y.N.; formal analysis, Y.N.; investigation, G.R. and Y.N.; resources, Y.N.; data curation, Y.N.; writing—review and editing, G.R. and Y.N.; supervision, G.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 31970452) and the Key Project of Science-Technology Basic Condition Platform from The Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (Grant No. 2005DKA21402).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article and the Supplementary Files.

Acknowledgments

We thank Yujie Wang (Hebei University, Baoding) and Shuqin Huo (Hebei University, Baoding) for their help in PAE and EA. We are also very grateful to Junxia Zhang (Hebei University, Baoding) and Xinglong Bai (Hebei University, Baoding) for their valuable comments and revisions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. (A) Species accumulation curves of Coleoptera in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region; (B) Linear regression (y = 0.8752 + 0.2913) curves at 0.5° grid size.
Figure 1. (A) Species accumulation curves of Coleoptera in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region; (B) Linear regression (y = 0.8752 + 0.2913) curves at 0.5° grid size.
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Figure 2. Species distribution map and the pattern of species richness of Coleoptera in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region.
Figure 2. Species distribution map and the pattern of species richness of Coleoptera in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region.
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Figure 3. Optimal tree obtained under a 0.5 grid using TNT v1.1.Shades of different colors represent different AOE.
Figure 3. Optimal tree obtained under a 0.5 grid using TNT v1.1.Shades of different colors represent different AOE.
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Figure 4. AOEs formed by overlapping PAE method with three different grid sizes: red shading indicates 0.1° grid; green shading indicates 0.25° grid; blue shading indicates 0.5° grid.
Figure 4. AOEs formed by overlapping PAE method with three different grid sizes: red shading indicates 0.1° grid; green shading indicates 0.25° grid; blue shading indicates 0.5° grid.
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Table 1. Comparison of similarity of families, genera and species in three endemic regions.
Table 1. Comparison of similarity of families, genera and species in three endemic regions.
RegionFamilyGenusSpecies
Co-FamiliesSimilarity (Cj)Co-GeneraSimilarity (Cj)Co-SpeciesSimilarity (Cj)
A and B560.874430.577080.46
A and C570.875560.699660.63
B and C550.904410.666990.53
A, B, and C represent the southern Taihang Mountains region, the Xiaowutai Mountains region, and the Yanshan Mountains region, respectively. (Cj = 0.00–0.25, very dissimilar; Cj = 0.25–0.50, moderately dissimilar; Cj = 0.50–0.75, moderately similar; Cj = 0.75–1.00; very similar).
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Niu, Y.; Ren, G. Patterns of Species Richness and Its Endemism of Beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region of China. Diversity 2024, 16, 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16080496

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Niu Y, Ren G. Patterns of Species Richness and Its Endemism of Beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region of China. Diversity. 2024; 16(8):496. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16080496

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Niu, Yuxian, and Guodong Ren. 2024. "Patterns of Species Richness and Its Endemism of Beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region of China" Diversity 16, no. 8: 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16080496

APA Style

Niu, Y., & Ren, G. (2024). Patterns of Species Richness and Its Endemism of Beetles in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region of China. Diversity, 16(8), 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16080496

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