Consumption of Carnivores by Wolves: A Worldwide Analysis of Patterns and Drivers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Collection and Organization
2.2. Assessing General Patterns of Carnivore Consumption by Wolves
2.3. Assessing Factors Determining Carnivore Consumption by Wolves
3. Results
3.1. General Patterns of Carnivore Consumption by Wolves
3.2. Determinants for Carnivore Consumption by Wolves
4. Discussion
4.1. Searching for Patterns: What Carnivores Are Consumed by Wolves? Where and Why?
4.2. Searching for the Drivers: Which Factors Affect Carnivore Consumption by Wolves?
4.3. Conclusions and Management Implications
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | B | Std. Error | 95% Wald Confidence Interval | Hypothesis Test | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | Wald Chi-Square | df | Sig. (p-Value) | |||
(Intercept) | 1.694 | 0.2536 | 1.197 | 2.191 | 44.655 | 1 | 0.000 |
(Protect Area = N) | 0.150 | 0.0589 | 0.035 | 0.266 | 6.509 | 1 | 0.011 |
(Protect Area = Y) | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
Domestic ungulates in wolf diet | −0.009 | 0.0022 | −0.014 | −0.005 | 18.599 | 1 | 0.000 |
Wild ungulates in wolf diet | −0.011 | 0.0021 | −0.015 | −0.006 | 24.405 | 1 | 0.000 |
Small mammals in wolf diet | −0.012 | 0.0036 | −0.019 | −0.005 | 10.577 | 1 | 0.001 |
NDVI | −0.003 | 0.0022 | −0.007 | 0.002 | 1.431 | 1 | 0.232 |
Human density | 0.000 | 0.0001 | −0.001 | −3.9 × 105 | 5.109 | 1 | 0.024 |
Parameter | B | Std. Error | 95% Wald Confidence Interval | Hypothesis Test | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | Wald Chi-Square | df | Sig. (p-Value) | |||
(Intercept) | 1.811 | 0.4866 | 0.857 | 2.764 | 13.846 | 1 | 0.000 |
(Protect Area = N) | 0.316 | 0.1357 | 0.050 | 0.582 | 5.429 | 1 | 0.020 |
(Protect Area = Y) | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
Domestic ungulates in wolf diet | −0.010 | 0.0046 | −0.019 | −0.002 | 5.270 | 1 | 0.022 |
Wild ungulates in wolf diet | −0.005 | 0.0042 | −0.013 | 0.003 | 1.333 | 1 | 0.248 |
Small mammals in wolf diet | −0.018 | 0.0069 | −0.031 | −0.004 | 6.667 | 1 | 0.010 |
NDVI | −0.008 | 0.0034 | −0.015 | −0.002 | 6.057 | 1 | 0.014 |
Human density | 5.1 ×10−5 | 0.0003 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.039 | 1 | 0.843 |
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Martins, I.; Krofel, M.; Mota, P.G.; Álvares, F. Consumption of Carnivores by Wolves: A Worldwide Analysis of Patterns and Drivers. Diversity 2020, 12, 470. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12120470
Martins I, Krofel M, Mota PG, Álvares F. Consumption of Carnivores by Wolves: A Worldwide Analysis of Patterns and Drivers. Diversity. 2020; 12(12):470. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12120470
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartins, Inês, Miha Krofel, Paulo G. Mota, and Francisco Álvares. 2020. "Consumption of Carnivores by Wolves: A Worldwide Analysis of Patterns and Drivers" Diversity 12, no. 12: 470. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12120470