Amphibian Declines Are Not Uniquely High amongst the Vertebrates: Trend Determination and the British Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
3.1. Taxonomic Group Comparisons
Taxon group | Number of species (IUCN 2008) | Total number of publications | Number of “decline” publications (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Amphibians | 6,347 | 504 | 153 (30) |
Reptiles | 8,734 | 749 | 42 (6) |
Mammals | 5,488 | 1,298 | 24 (2) |
Birds | 9,990 | 2,793 | 161 (6) |
Taxon group | % of species evaluated | Number of threatened species | Number of threatened species as: | |
---|---|---|---|---|
% of species | % of evaluated species | |||
Amphibians | 98.6 | 1905 | 30 | 30 |
Reptiles | 15.9 | 423 | 5 | 31 |
Mammals | 100.0 | 1141 | 21 | 21 |
Birds | 100.0 | 1222 | 12 | 12 |
Taxon group | Number of native species | Number of declining and/or strictly protected species (%) | Number of extinctions (as resident, breeding) since 1950 |
---|---|---|---|
Amphibians | 7 | 3 (43) | 1 |
Reptiles | 7 | 3 (43) | 0 |
Mammals | 59 | 14 (24) | 2 |
Birds | 223 | 88 (39) | 1 |
3.2. The British Situation: Seeking a Baseline
Year [reference] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
1869 [23] | 1893 [24] | 1901–1903 [25,26] | 1948 [27] | |
Resolution | Mostly national, some county | Mostly national, some county | Regional and vice-county | Vice-county |
R. temporaria | Common in Britain & Ireland | |||
R. lessonae | Present in East Anglia | |||
B. bufo | Absent from Ireland | Widespread in Britain | ||
B. calamita | Hampshire, London, East Anglia & Solway | Surrey, Suffolk & south-west Ireland | Dorset, Cheshire, Lancashire | |
T. vulgaris | Widespread & common | Commoner than T. cristatus, and occurs in Ireland | ||
T. helveticus | Edinburgh, Dorset, Isle of Wight, Somerset | Devon & Hereford | Widespread in Britain, absent in Ireland | |
T. cristatus | Widespread & common | |||
L. vivipara | Common in Britain (including Scotland) & Ireland | |||
L. agilis | Dorset | Surrey, Hants, Cheshire, Lancashire | ||
A. fragilis | Widespread, including Scotland | Absent from Ireland | ||
N. natrix | Common in England, maybe Scotland, not in Ireland | Common in south. Only in south of Scotland | Rare in northern England, absent from Scotland | |
V. berus | In Britain, not Ireland | Common in Scotland | ||
C. austriaca | Dumfries (!) Hants & Dorset | Surrey & Berkshire | ||
D. coriacea | Cornwall, Dorset & North Sea coasts |
3.3. Population Trends in Britain
Species | Timespan | Change | Evidence type | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
R. temporaria | 1940–1970 | Major decline | Questionnaire | [32] |
1970–1980 | Small decline | Questionnaire | [35] | |
1980–1990 | Medium increase | Questionnaire | [36] | |
R. lessonae | 1990–2000 | Extinction | Fieldwork | [22] |
B. bufo | 1940–1970 | Major decline | Questionnaire | [32] |
1970–1980 | Small decline | Questionnaire | [35] | |
1980–1990 | Small decline | Questionnaire | [36] | |
1985–2000 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [37] | |
1985–2003 | Major declines | Road casualties | [38] | |
B. calamita | 1900–1970 | Major decline | Fieldwork/ | [33] |
1970–1999 | No change | literature/ | [ 39] | |
questionnaire | ||||
Fieldwork | ||||
T. vulgaris | 1970–1980 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [35] |
1980–1990 | No change | Questionnaire | [36] | |
T. helveticus | 1970–1980 | Small decline | Questionnaire | [35] |
1980–1990 | Small decline | Questionnaire | [36] | |
T. cristatus | 1950–1970 | Strong decline | Questionnaire | [40] |
1970–1980 | Strong decline | Questionnaire | [35] | |
1980–1990 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [36] | |
L. vivipara | 1970–1980 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [35] |
1980–1990 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [36] | |
L. agilis | 1970–1987 | Strong decline | Fieldwork | [41] |
1800–2000 | Strong decline | Habitat loss | [42,43,44,45] | |
A. fragilis | 1970–1980 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [35] |
1980–1990 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [36] | |
1980–2003 | No change | Questionnaire/ fieldwork | [46] | |
N. natrix | 1970–1980 | Major decline | Questionnaire | [35] |
1980–1990 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [36] | |
V. berus | 1970–1980 | Small decline | Questionnaire | [36] |
1980–1990 | Medium decline | Questionnaire | [36] | |
1980–2003 | Major decline | Questionnaire/ fieldwork | [46] | |
C. austriaca | 1970–1987 | Minor decline | Fieldwork | [47] |
1970-1979 | 1980-1989 | 1990-1999 | 2000-2009 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
B. calamita | ||||
Total sites | 42 | 44 | 47 | 49 |
Extinctions | 0 | 4 | 2 | 6* |
Translocations | 0 | 6 | 5 | 8 |
L. agilis | ||||
Total sites | 89 | 93 | 110 | 120 |
Extinctions | 22 | 2 | 3 | 1 |
Translocations | 7 | 6 | 20 | 11 |
Country | Start date | Coverage (no. species) | Coverage (geographical) | Measurement |
---|---|---|---|---|
Netherlands | 1997 amphibians 1994 reptiles | 16 amphibians7 reptiles | 320 areas >500 areas | Presence and abundance |
Britain (NARRS) | 2007 amphibians 2007 reptiles | 5 amphibians 6 reptiles | 400 ponds 400 1 km2 | Presence |
3.4. Reasons for Amphibian and Reptile Declines
4. Discussion
4.1. Amphibian and Other Declines
Taxonomic group | Habitat loss | Invasives | Harvesting | Accidents | Persecution |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amphibians | 77(92) | 40(48) | 22(26) | 3(4) | 0 |
Threatened | 17(89) | 5(26) | 6(32) | 1(1) | 0 |
Reptiles | 98(71) | 22(16) | 36(26) | 28(20) | 35(25) |
Threatened | 22(81) | 9(33) | 16(60) | 4[15) | 4(15) |
Taxonomic group | Pollution/ climate change | Native population dynamics | Intrinsic factors | Disturbance | |
Amphibians | 62(75) | 11(13) | 26(31) | 5(6) | |
Threatened | 10(53) | 3(16) | 12(63) | 4(21) | |
Reptiles | 34(24) | 8(6) | 22(16) | 16(13) | |
Threatened | 10(37) | 2(7) | 10(37) | 8(30) |
Species | Factor | Likely impact | References |
---|---|---|---|
B. bufo | (1) Road mortality | Minor/moderate | [37,38,48] |
(2) Changes in habitat management | Moderate | [37] | |
(3) Climate change reducing female fecundity and survival | Minor/moderate | [58] | |
B. calamita | (1) Pond acidification | Minor | [59] |
(2) Competition from B. bufo after habitat change | Severe | [57] | |
(3) Inbreeding in isolated populations | Minor | [60] | |
(4) Chytrid infection | Uncertain | Unpublished | |
R. lessonae | Changes in habitat management and water abstraction levels | Severe | [22] |
V. berus | Habitat fragmentation and inbreeding effects | Moderate | [46] |
L. agilis | Competition with introduced lizards (Podarcis muralis) | Minor | Unpublished |
4.2. Trend Detection and the British Experience
4.3. Research Needs and Future Prospects
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Beebee, T.J.C.; Wilkinson, J.W.; Buckley, J. Amphibian Declines Are Not Uniquely High amongst the Vertebrates: Trend Determination and the British Perspective. Diversity 2009, 1, 67-88. https://doi.org/10.3390/d1010067
Beebee TJC, Wilkinson JW, Buckley J. Amphibian Declines Are Not Uniquely High amongst the Vertebrates: Trend Determination and the British Perspective. Diversity. 2009; 1(1):67-88. https://doi.org/10.3390/d1010067
Chicago/Turabian StyleBeebee, Trevor J. C., John W. Wilkinson, and John Buckley. 2009. "Amphibian Declines Are Not Uniquely High amongst the Vertebrates: Trend Determination and the British Perspective" Diversity 1, no. 1: 67-88. https://doi.org/10.3390/d1010067