Kaempferol: Antimicrobial Properties, Sources, Clinical, and Traditional Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biosynthesis and Availability of Kaempferol
2.1. Biosynthetic Pathways of Kaempferol
2.2. Bioavailability of Kaempferol
3. Kaempferol as an Antibacterial Agent
3.1. Antibacterial Activity against Acinetobacter baumannii
3.2. Antibacterial Activity against Bacillus Spp.
3.3. Antibacterial Activity against Escherichia coli
3.4. Antibacterial Activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae
3.5. Antibacterial Activity against Mycobacterium Spp.
3.6. Antibacterial Activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
3.7. Antibacterial Activity against Salmonella Spp.
3.8. Antibacterial Activity against Staphylococcus Spp.
3.9. Antibacterial Activity against Enterococci
3.10. Antibacterial Activity against Proteus Spp.
3.11. Antibacterial Activity against Vibrio cholerae
4. Antifungal Properties of Kaempferol
5. Antiprotozoal Properties of Kaempferol
5.1. Antiprotozoal Action against Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia
5.2. Antiprotozoal Action against Trypanosoma Spp.
5.3. Antiprotozoal Action against Plasmidium Spp.
5.4. Antiprotozoal Action against Leishmania Spp.
6. Kaempferol-Containing Plants in Traditional Medical Systems
Kaempferol-Containing Plants in the Context of Traditional Chinese Medicine
7. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Clade | Order | Family | Species | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gymnosperms, Tracheophytes | Pinales | Taxaceae | Taxus baccata | [77] |
Mesangiosperms, Magnoliids | Canellales | Canellaceae | Warburgia stuhlmannii | [84] |
Magnoliales | Annonaceae | Annona cherimola Miller | [85] | |
Mesangiosperms, Monocots | Asparagales | Alliaceae | Allium cepa | [86] |
Asphodelaceae | Aloe vera | [87] | ||
Liliales | Liliaceae | Lilium candidum | [88] | |
Lilium longiflorum | [89] | |||
Smilacaceae | Smilax bockii | [90] | ||
Mesangiosperms, Eudicots | Ranunculales | Berberidaceae | Dysosma versipellis | [91] |
Ranunculaceae | Consolida oliveriana | [92] | ||
Saxifragales | Crassulaceae | Orostachys japonicus | [93] | |
Rhodiola rosea | [94] | |||
Rhodiola sachalinensis | [95] | |||
Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi | [96] | |||
Vitales | Vitaceae | Parthenocissus tricuspidata | [97] | |
Cayratia trifolia Linn | [98] | |||
Cucurbitales | Cucurbitaceae | Gynostemma cardiospermum | [99] | |
Fabales | Fabaceae | Astragalus creticus Lam. | [100] | |
Tylosema esculentum | [101] | |||
Bauhinia vahlii | [102] | |||
Acacia nilotica | [103] | |||
Amburana cearensis | [104] | |||
Cassia angustifolia | [105] | |||
Cassia siamea | [106] | |||
Indigofera suffruticosa | [107] | |||
Indigofera truxillensis | [107] | |||
Oxytropis falcate | [108] | |||
Securigera securidaca | [109] | |||
Tadehagi triquetrum | [110] | |||
Trifolium alexandrinum | [111] | |||
Rosales | Elaeagnaceae | Hippophae rhamnoides | [112] | |
Rhamnaceae | Rhamnus nakaharai | [113] | ||
Rhamnus procumbens | [114] | |||
Rosaceae | Prunus davidiana | [115] | ||
Rosa spp. | [116] | |||
Rosa damascena | [117] | |||
Rosa hybrids | [118] | |||
Ulmaceae | Zelkova oregoniana | [119] | ||
Celastrales | Celastraceae | Euonymus alatus | [120] | |
Malpighiales | Clusiaceae | Hypericum brasiliense | [121] | |
Hypericum perforatum | [122] | |||
Vismia laurentii | [123] | |||
Euphorbiaceae | Elateriospermum tapos | [124] | ||
Euphorbia aleppica | [125] | |||
Phyllanthus acidus | [126] | |||
Sauropus androgynus | [127] | |||
Sebastiania brasiliensis | [128] | |||
Salicaceae | Populus davidiana | [129] | ||
Geraniales | Geraniaceae | Geranium carolinianum | [130] | |
Geranium potentillaefolium | [131] | |||
G. ibericum subs. jubatum | [132] | |||
Pelargonium quercifolium | [133] | |||
Brassicales | Brassicaceae | Brassica rapa | [134] | |
Bunias orientalis | [135] | |||
Diplotaxis erucoides | [135] | |||
Diplotaxis tenuifolia | [135] | |||
Malvales | Cistaceae | Helianthemum glomeratum | [136] | |
Malvaceae | Althaea rosea | [137] | ||
Sterculiaceae | Theobroma grandiflorum | [138] | ||
Tiliaceae | Tilia tomentosa | [139] | ||
Myrtales | Combretaceae | Combretum erythrophyllum | [140] | |
Lythraceae | Cuphea pinetorum | [141] | ||
Myrtaceae | Eucalyptus spp. | [142] | ||
Psidium guajava | [143] | |||
Syzygium aromaticum | [144] | |||
Punicaceae | Punica granatum | [145] | ||
Sapindales | Anacardiaceae | Pistacia vera | [146] | |
Rhus verniciflua | [147] | |||
Sapindaceae | Koelreuteria henryi | [148] | ||
Koelreuteria paniculata | [149] | |||
Simaroubaceae | Simarouba versicolor | [150] | ||
Caryophyllales | Amaranthaceae | Alternanthera tenella | [151] | |
Nepenthaceae | Nepenthes gracilis | [152] | ||
Polygonaceae | Polygonum tinctorium | [153] | ||
Santalales | Santalaceae | Thesium chinense | [154] | |
Ericales | Ebenaceae | Diospyros lotus | [155] | |
Lecythidaceae | Planchonia grandis | [156] | ||
Myrsinoideae | Ardisia colorata | [157] | ||
Gentianales | Apocynaceae | Echites hirsuta | [158] | |
Rubiaceae | Morinda citrifolia | [159] | ||
Morinda morindoides | [160] | |||
Vahliales | Vahliaceae | Vahlia capensis | [161] | |
Solanales | Convolvulaceae | Cuscuta australis | [162] | |
Cuscuta chinensis | [163] | |||
Solanaceae | Solanum nigrum | [164] | ||
Lamiales | Oleaceae | Chionanthus retusus | [165] | |
Olea europaea | [166] | |||
Scrophulariaceae | Buddleja indica Lam. | [167] | ||
Lamiaceae | Origanum dictamnus | [168] | ||
Rosmarinus officinalis | [169] | |||
Apiales | Apiaceae | Bunium persicum | [170] | |
Bupleurum flavum | [171] | |||
Bupleurum chinense | [172] | |||
Asterales | Asteraceae | Heterotheca inuloides | [173] | |
Chromolaena moritziana | [174] | |||
Ixeridium gracile | [175] | |||
Lactuca scariola | [176] | |||
Solidago virga-aurea | [177] | |||
Helichrysum compactum | [178] | |||
Europatorium perfoliatum L. | [179] | |||
Pluchea indica | [180] | |||
Dipsacales | Caprifoliaceae | Sambucus nigra | [181] | |
Polypodiopsida, Moniliformopses | Polypodiales | Dennstaedtiaceae | Dennstaedtia scabra | [182] |
Polypodiopsida, Ophioglossidae | Ophioglossales | Ophioglossaceae | Ophioglossum petiolatum | [183] |
Food | Quantity (mg/kg) | Reference |
---|---|---|
Capers | 2590 | [184] |
Saffron | 2050 | [184] |
Onion leaves | 832 | [185] |
Arugula | 590 | [184] |
Kale | 470 | [184] |
Brown mustard | 380 | [184] |
Pumpkin | 371 | [186] |
Ginger | 340 | [184] |
Cauliflower | 270 | [187] |
Common beans | 260 | [184] |
Carrot | 140 | [186] |
Black tea | 118 | [186] |
Chive | 100 | [184] |
Endive | 100 | [184] |
Collard | 90 | [184] |
Broccoli | 80 | [184] |
Fennel leaves | 70 | [184] |
Goji berry (dried) | 60 | [184] |
Green chilli | 39 | [186] |
Strawberry | 5–8 | [188] |
Genus | Species | Tested Substance | MIC (μg/mL) | Year of Research | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gram-Negative Bacteria | |||||
Acinetobacter | A. baumannii | Pure kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside | 8 | 2006 | [214] |
Extract from Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi | 128–256 | 2019 | [96] | ||
Artificial blend with nanocrystals | n/a—no adm. of sole kaempferol | 2021 | [215] | ||
Extract from Geranium ibericum subsp. jubatum | 400 | 2021 | [132] | ||
Extracts from propolis | n/a—expressed as % of propolis | 2021 | [216] | ||
Enterobacter | E. cloacae, E. aerogenes | Extract from Scabiosa hymettia | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2008 | [209] |
Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | Various depending on extract | 2011 | [211] | ||
Escherichia | E. coli | Pure kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside | 2 | 2006 | [214] |
Extract from Scabiosa hymettia | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2008 | [209] | ||
Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | Various depending on extract | 2011 | [211] | ||
Extract from Bupleurum chinense | n/a | 2020 | [172] | ||
Extracts from propolis | n/a—expressed as % of propolis | 2021 | [216] | ||
Conjugation of pure kaempferol with Ag nanoparticles | 62.5 | 2021 | [217] | ||
Extract from Rosa damascena Mill var. trigintipetala | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2022 | [218] | ||
Extract from Yucca gigantea | 13.3 | 2022 | [219] | ||
Klebsiella | K. pneumoniae | Pure kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside | 4 | 2006 | [214] |
Extract from Scabiosa hymettia | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2008 | [209] | ||
Extract from Argyreia speciosa | 2 | 2009 | [220] | ||
Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | Various depending on extract | 2011 | [211] | ||
Extract from Bupleurum chinense | n/a | 2020 | [172] | ||
Extract from Geranium ibericum subsp. jubatum | 400 | 2021 | [132] | ||
Extract from Yucca gigantea | 12.5 | 2022 | [219] | ||
Porphyromonas | P. gingivalis | Extract from Syzygium aromaticum | 20 | 1996 | [144] |
Prevotella | P. intermedia | Extract from Syzygium aromaticum | 20 | 1996 | [144] |
Proteus | P. mirabilis, P. vulgaris | Extract from Uapaca heudelotti | 2 | 2020 | [212] |
Extract from Geranium ibericum subsp. jubatum | 300 | 2021 | [132] | ||
Extract from Rosa damascena Mill var. trigintipetala | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2022 | [218] | ||
Extract from Yucca gigantea | 14.8 | 2022 | [219] | ||
Pseudomonas | P. aeruginosa | Extract from Scabiosa hymettia | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2008 | [209] |
Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2011 | [211] | ||
Extract from Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lank.) Oken | Various depending on extract | 2012 | [221] | ||
Extract from Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi | 256 | 2019 | [96] | ||
Extract from Bupleurum chinense | n/a | 2020 | [172] | ||
Extract from Yucca gigantea | 10.2 | 2022 | [219] | ||
Salmonella | S. typhi, S. typhimurium | Extract from Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lank.) Oken | Various depending on extract | 2012 | [221] |
Extract from Uapaca heudelotti | 12.5 | 2020 | [212] | ||
Extract from Yucca gigantea | 10.5 | 2022 | [219] | ||
Vibrio | V. cholerae | Extract from Combretum erythrophyllum | n/a | 2004 | [140] |
Gram-Positive Bacteria | |||||
Enterococcus | E. faecium, E. faecalis | Extract from Combretum erythrophyllum | n/a | 2004 | [140] |
Pure kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside | 0.5 | 2006 | [214] | ||
Extract from Laurus nobilis | >256 | 2008 | [222] | ||
Micrococcus | M. luteus | Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | Various depending on extract | 2011 | [211] |
Staphylococcus | S. aureus, S. epidermidis | Extract from Mitracarpus scaber | 125 | 2000 | [223] |
Pure kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside | 0.5 | 2006 | [214] | ||
Extract from Scabiosa hymettia | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2008 | [209] | ||
Extract from Laurus nobilis | >256 | 2008 | [222] | ||
Extract from Allium ursinum | 625 | 2009 | [224] | ||
Extract from Platanus occidentalis | Various depending on the kaempferol compound | 2009 | [225] | ||
Extract from Laurus nobilis | Various depending on synergistic effects | 2009 | [206] | ||
Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | Various depending on extract | 2011 | [211] | ||
Extract from Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lank.) Oken | Various depending on extract | 2012 | [221] | ||
Extract from Calliandra tergemina (L.) Benth | Various depending on extract type and compound | 2014 | [226] | ||
Extract from Platanus occidentalis | n/a | 2015 | [227] | ||
Extract from Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi | 256 | 2019 | [96] | ||
Extract from Platanus occidentalis | 16 | 2020 | [228] | ||
Extract from Bupleurum chinense | n/a | 2020 | [172] | ||
Extract from Uapaca heudelotti | 12.5 | 2020 | [212] | ||
Conjugation of pure kaempferol with Ag nanoparticles | n/a | 2021 | [217] | ||
Extracts from propolis | n/a—expressed as % of propolis | 2021 | [216] | ||
Artificial blend with nanocrystals | n/a—no adm. of sole kaempferol | 2021 | [215] | ||
Extract from Yucca gigantea | 14.46 | 2022 | [219] | ||
Streptococcus | S. pyogenes | Extract from Uapaca heudelotti | 6.25 | 2020 | [212] |
Bacillus | B. subtilis, B. cereus | Pure kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside | 8 | 2006 | [214] |
Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | Various depending on extract | 2011 | [211] | ||
Extract from Bupleurum chinense | n/a | 2020 | [172] | ||
Extract from Uapaca heudelotti | 6.25 | 2020 | [212] | ||
Extract from Buddleja indica Lam. | 0.48 | 2021 | [167] | ||
Extract from Astragalus creticus | n/a (expr. as inhibition %) | 2021 | [100] | ||
Conjugation of pure kaempferol with Ag nanoparticles | n/a | 2021 | [217] | ||
Extract from Rosa damascena Mill var. trigintipetala | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2022 | [218] | ||
Cutibacterium | C. acnes | Extract from Impatiens balsamina | 32–64 | 2007 | [208] |
Ziehl-Neelsen Stain | |||||
Mycobacterium | M. bovis, M. tuberculosis | Extract from Argyreia speciosa | 25 | 2009 | [220] |
Extract from Doliocarpus dentatus | 62.5 | 2017 | [229] | ||
Extract from Pluchea indica | n/a | 2020 | [180] | ||
Extract from Bauhinia vahlii | n/a (expr. as inhibition %) | 2021 | [102] | ||
Extract from Vatairea macrocarpa | n/a | 2021 | [230] |
Genus | Species | Tested Substance | MIC (μg/mL) | Year of Research | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aspergillus | A. fumigatus | Extract from Rosa damascena Mill var. trigintipetala | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2022 | [218] |
Candida | C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. glabrata | Extract from Mitracarpus scaber | 250–500 | 2000 | [223] |
Pure kaempferol-3-O-(6”-galloyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside | 200 | 2004 | [342] | ||
Extract from Scabiosa hymettia | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2008 | [209] | ||
Pure kaempferol | 25 | 2008 | [343] | ||
Extract from Allium ursinum | >625 | 2009 | [224] | ||
Extract from Labisa pumila Benth | Various depending on extract | 2011 | [211] | ||
Extract from Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lank.) Oken | Various depending on extract | 2012 | [221] | ||
Extract from Geranium ibericum subsp. jubatum | 400 | 2021 | [132] | ||
Extract from Rosa damascena Mill var. trigintipetala | n/a (only inh. zone data) | 2022 | [218] | ||
Bark extract from Spondias mombin | n/a | 2022 | [213] | ||
Cryptococcus | C. neoformans | Extract from Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lank.) Oken | Various depending on extract | 2012 | [221] |
Disease | Causative Agents | Endemic Areas | References |
---|---|---|---|
Amoebiasis | Entamoeba histolytica | Central and South America, Africa, India | [346,347] |
Giardiasis | Giardia lamblia | Worldwide | [348,349] |
Human African trypanosomiasis | Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, Trypanosoma brucei rhodensiense, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma evansi | Sub-Saharan (Central and West Africa) | [350] |
Malaria | Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium knowlesi | South America, Africa, India, and South Pacific islands | [351,352] |
Leishmaniasis | Leishmania donovani, Leishmania major, Leishmania mexicana, Leishmania tropica, etc. | Africa, Central and South Asia, Central and South America | [353,354,355] |
Active Kaempferol Compound | Extracted from | Active against | IC50 (μg/mL) | Year of Study | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kaempferol | Helianthemum glomeratum | E. histolytica | 9.7 | 1995 | [136] |
Kaempferol | Helianthemum glomeratum | E. histolytica, G. lamblia | 7.93, 8.73 | 1998 | [356] |
Kaempferol | Helianthemum glomeratum | E. histolytica, G. lamblia | 7.93, 8.73 | 1999 | [357] |
Kaempferol | Helianthemum glomeratum | E. histolytica, G. lamblia | 7.93, 8.73 | 1999 | [358] |
Kaempferol-7-methylether | Alomia myriadenia | T. cruzi | n/a (expressed as % of T. cruzi lysis) | 2003 | [359] |
Kaempferol | Cuphea pinetorum | E. histolytica, G. lamblia | 7.9–8.3 | 2005 | [141] |
Kaempferol | Morinda morindoides | E. histolytica | Various depending on kaempferol compound | 2006 | [160] |
Kaempferol-3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl (1→2)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside | Kalanchoe pinnata | Leishmania spp. | >100 | 2006 | [360] |
8-(1;1)-DMA-kaempferide | Pure compound | P. falciparum | n/a (expressed in μΜ) | 2006 | [361] |
Kaempferol | Eupatorium perfoliatum L. | P. falciparum | 2.7 (whole extract) | 2011 | [179] |
Kaempferol | Cayratia trifolia Linn | Trypanosoma spp. | n/a | 2011 | [98] |
Kaempferol rhamnosides and glycosides | Pure compounds | Plasmidium spp. | n/a (expressed in μΜ) | 2016 | [362] |
Kaempferol | Annona cherimola Miller | E. histolytica, G. lamblia | 7.9, 8.7 | 2017 | [85] |
Kaempferol-3,7-dimethylether | Cnidoscolus chayamansa | E. histolytica, G. lamblia | ≤27.43 | 2017 | [363] |
Kaempferol-3,7-di-O-methylether | Solanum paludosum Moric | L. amazonensis | n/a (expressed in μΜ) | 2019 | [364] |
Kaempferol, 4′-methoxykaempferol, 4′,7-dimethoxykaempferol | Propolis | T. brucei, L. mexicana | n/a (expressed in μΜ) | 2021 | [365] |
Kaempferol, kaempferol 3-O-α-L-rhamnoside, and other kaempferol compounds | Lotus corniculatus L. | Trypanosoma spp., Plasmodium spp. | 0.98, 1.57 | 2021 | [366] |
Plant | Traditional/Ethnobotanical Uses | Uses Described in This Paper | References |
---|---|---|---|
Annona cherimola Miller | Traditional Mexican medicine | Antiprotozoal (against E. histolytica, G. lamblia) | [85,395,396] |
Argyreia speciosa | Traditional Indian medicine | Antibacterial (against K. pneumoniae, M. tuberculosis) | [220,397,398] |
Astragalus creticus | Traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Pakistani medicine | Antibacterial (against B. subtilis) | [100,399] |
Bauhinia vahlii | Traditional Indian medicine | Antibacterial (against M. tuberculosis) | [102,400,401] |
Bryophyllum pinatum | Traditional Chinese medicine, various traditional medical systems of tropical Africa and America, traditional Indian medicine | Antibacterial (against P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. typhi); antifungal (against C. neoformans) | [221,402,403] |
Buddleja indica Lam | Traditional African medicine | Antibacterial (against B. subtilis) | [167,404] |
Bupleurum chinense | Traditional Chinese medicine | Antibacterial (against B. subtilis, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. aureus) | [172,405,406] |
Cnidoscolus chayamansa | Traditional Mexican medicine | Antiprotozoal (against E. histolytica, G. lamblia) | [363,407] |
Cuphea pinetorum | Traditional Mayan medicine, traditional Mexican medicine | Antiprotozoal (against E. histolytica, G. lamblia) | [141,408] |
Doliocarpus dentatus | Traditional Brazilian medicine, traditional Peruvian medicine | Antibacterial (against M. tuberculosis) | [229,409] |
Geranium ibericum jubatum | Ethnobotanical usage in Malaya, Eastern Anatolia | Antibacterial (against A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae) | [132,410] |
Helianthemum glomeratum | Traditional Mayan medicine | Antiprotozoal (against E. histolytica, G. lamblia) | [358,411] |
Impatiens balsamina | Traditional Chinese medicine and traditional medicinal systems of Asia | Antibacterial (against P. acnes) | [208,412,413] |
Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi | Indian traditional medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Brazilian medicine, Traditional African medicine | Antibacterial (against A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus) | [96,414] |
Labisia pumila Benth | Traditional Malayan medicine | Antibacterial (against B. cereus, B. subtilis, E. aerogenes, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, M. luteus, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus); antifungal (against C. albicans) | [211,415,416] |
Lotus corniculatus L. | Traditional Turkish medicine, traditional Russian medicine, traditional Egyptian medicine | Antiprotozoal (against Trypanosoma spp.) | [366,417,418] |
Mitracarpus scaber | Traditional Malian medicine | Antibacterial (against S. aureus; antifungal (against A. fumigatus) | [223,419] |
Morinda morindoides | Various traditional African medical systems | Antiprotozoal (against E. histolytica) | [160,420,421] |
Pluchea indica | Traditional Thai medicine, traditional Indian medicine | Antibacterial (against M. tuberculosis) | [180,422,423] |
Propolis | Ancient Greek medicine, Ancient Roman medicine, Ancient Egyptian medicine, European medieval medical systems | Antibacterial (against A. baumannii, E. coli, S. aureus); antiprotozoan (against T. brucei, L. mexicana) | [216,365,424] |
Rosa damascena Mill var. trigintipetala | Ancient Persian medicine, traditional Arab medicine, traditional Iranian medicine | Antibacterial (against B. subtilis, E. coli, P. vulgaris); antifungal (A. fumigatus, C. albicans) | [218,425,426,427,428] |
Scabiosa hymettia | Traditional Greek medicine | Antibacterial (against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, E. cloacae); antifungal (C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis) | [209,429] |
Solanum paludosum Moric | South American folk medicine | Antiprotozoal (against L. amazonensis) | [364,430] |
Syzygium aromaticum | Various traditional medicinal systems of Asia | Antibacterial (against P. gingivalis, P. intermedia) | [144,431] |
Uapaca heudelotii | Traditional Congolese medicine, various other local African medical traditions | Antibacterial (against S. pneumoniae, S. aureus, S. typhi, P. mirabilis, B. subtilis) | [212,432,433] |
Uapaca heudelotti | Traditional African medicine | Antibacterial (against B. subtilis, S. aureus, S. pneumoniae, S. typhi) | [212,433] |
Vatairea macrocarpa (Benth) Ducke | Traditional Brazilian medicine | Antibacterial (against M. bovis) | [230,434] |
Yucca gigantea | Native American medicine, traditional Guatemalan medicine | Antibacterial (against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, S. typhimurium, P. mirabilis) | [219,435,436] |
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Periferakis, A.; Periferakis, K.; Badarau, I.A.; Petran, E.M.; Popa, D.C.; Caruntu, A.; Costache, R.S.; Scheau, C.; Caruntu, C.; Costache, D.O. Kaempferol: Antimicrobial Properties, Sources, Clinical, and Traditional Applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 15054. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232315054
Periferakis A, Periferakis K, Badarau IA, Petran EM, Popa DC, Caruntu A, Costache RS, Scheau C, Caruntu C, Costache DO. Kaempferol: Antimicrobial Properties, Sources, Clinical, and Traditional Applications. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(23):15054. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232315054
Chicago/Turabian StylePeriferakis, Argyrios, Konstantinos Periferakis, Ioana Anca Badarau, Elena Madalina Petran, Delia Codruta Popa, Ana Caruntu, Raluca Simona Costache, Cristian Scheau, Constantin Caruntu, and Daniel Octavian Costache. 2022. "Kaempferol: Antimicrobial Properties, Sources, Clinical, and Traditional Applications" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 23: 15054. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232315054