Review on Magnetism in Catalysis: From Theory to PEMFC Applications of 3d Metal Pt-Based Alloys
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Magnetism in Transition Metals: The 3d-Electrons Case
2.1. Types of Magnetic Behavior
2.1.1. Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism
2.1.2. Collective Magnetism
2.1.3. Strongly Correlated Electron Systems (SCES)
2.2. (Indirect) Exchange Interactions
2.2.1. Basic Quantum Concepts
- The operator for the kinetic energy of the electrons ();
- The operator for the kinetic energy of the nuclei ();
- The electron–nucleus Coulomb attraction term ();
- The electron–electron Coulomb repulsion (); and
- The nucleus–nucleus Coulomb repulsion ().
2.2.2. Exchange Effects
2.2.3. Coulomb and Exchange Integrals
- is a one-electron term (integral) that represents the average nuclear attraction and kinetic energy of an electron a described by (this integral is indicated as in Equation (15)).
- is a two-electron term (integral) that represents the classical Coulomb repulsion between and charge clouds, called Coulomb integral ().
- is another two-electron integral with a quantum mechanics interpretation and it is called exchange integral ().
- and are the averages of the nuclear attraction and kinetic energy for an electron a described by and;
- and are the Coulomb integrals between electrons with the same spin,
- is the Coulomb integral of an electron in with one in ;
- and are the exchange integrals among electrons with parallel spin (there is no exchange interaction between electrons with antiparallel spin);
- The summations, with upper limit and , are over occupied orbitals or and or , respectively; and
- The factor in the third and fourth terms removes the double counting in the free sum.
2.2.4. Exchange Mechanisms
2.3. Electronic Structure of Solids
2.3.1. Bloch Theorem
- The Bragg reflection is a feature of the wave propagation in periodic systems; hence, it must be also a characteristic of electron waves in crystalline structures [27,32,69]. The most relevant consequence of the Bragg reflection is that it leads to the creation of gaps in the distribution of energy states [27]. The energy spectrum of a crystal is transformed into a band structure featuring energy levels where the propagation of electrons becomes possible [32]. The Bragg reflection conditions can also be used to build the boundaries of the Brillouin zone [27].
- The Fermi energy (EF) is a concept of quantum mechanics used in solids. The Fermi energy defines the energy level for which all states having energy € smaller than EF are occupied at T = 0 K [15,26,32]. In other words, EF represents the highest occupied energy level [13,44]. There are no thermal energies at 0 K, so the occupation of one-electron states is determined only by placing one electron per state (in agreement with the Pauli exclusion principle). The position of EF in relation to the band energy level is important in determining the electronic and thermal properties of a solid, since it energetically separates the occupied from the non-occupied states [32,44]. Another useful concept related to Fermi energy is the Fermi surface. The Fermi surface is a surface, defined in the reciprocal space, that separates the occupied states from the empty ones at 0 K [32,71]. Its shape can provide information on the electrical properties of a solid [71]. The electronic bands placed below and above EF are called valence and conduction bands, respectively [32].
2.3.2. Electrons in Transition Metals
2.3.3. Heisenberg Model
2.3.4. Hubbard Model
- and are two nearest neighbor sites;
- is a vertex set that is normally assumed to form a translationally invariant lattice, whose characteristics are important to define the properties of the model [82];
- is the spin electron;
- is the transfer or hopping matrix element. It indicates that the dispersion energy band is now expressed in terms of hopping [32];
- indicates Bloch functions described by the spin index;
2.3.5. Additional Remarks
- is the kinetic energy of the electrons;
- is the Coulomb attraction between nucleus and electrons;
- is the energy factor of the electron–electron Coulomb repulsions;
- is the energy factor due to the spin–orbit coupling.
2.4. Magnetic Properties of 3d-Transition Metals and Their Alloys
- Copper (Cu) is a face-centered cubic (fcc) solid. It is the only 3d metal that exhibits a diamagnetic behavior (= −1.1 at 298 K) [15], since it has a completely filled 3d-band [72] (the sequential filling of the d-shell induces the related bands to become narrower and to energetically shift below the Fermi energy) [32].
- and are the atomic fractions of M and Pt in the same sample;
- and are the fractions of M and Pt sites; and
- and are fractions of Fe or Pt sites occupied by the correct atomic species.
FePt | CoPt | NiPt | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strukturbericht Designation | A1 | L10 | A1 | L10 | A1 | L10 |
Chemical Ordering | D | O | D | O | D | O |
Order–Disorder Critical Temperature (K) | ~1573 [99,108] | ~1106 [95]; ~1098 [99,144] | ~940 [128,144] | |||
Heat of Formation (ΔHf) (eV/atom) | - | −0.73 a [145] | - | −0.140 [146] | - | −0.096 [128] |
Magnetic Ordering | FM [108] | FM [108] | FM [147] | FM [147,148] | FM [94] | P [14,94] |
Curie Temperature (TC) (K) | 585 [108] | 750 [108]; 670 [14] | - | 750 [14]; 710 [149]; 850 [133] | - | - |
Magnetically | Soft | Hard | Soft | Hard | - | - |
Maximum Energy Product (BH)max (MGOe) | - | ~13 [150] | - | ~9.7 [95] | - | - |
Uniaxial MCA Energy Constant (Ku) (107 erg/cm3) | [110] | 7 [119]; 6.6–10 [133] | <4.9 [126] | 4.9 [133] | - | - |
Saturation Magnetization (MS) (emu/cm3) | - | 1140 [133]; 1150 [151] | - | 800 [133] | - | - |
Minimal Stable Grain Size (Dp) (nm) b,c | - | 3.3–2.8 [133] | - | 3.6 [133] | - | - |
3. Catalysis and Magnetism
3.1. Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR)
- The Griffith model, in which both oxygen atoms interact with a single atom of the catalytic surface (the less common type of adsorption);
- The Pauling model (or end-on configuration), in which only one of the two oxygen atoms is coordinated with one atom of the catalytic surface; and
- The bridge model, in which two bonds are formed involving both O atoms with two different atoms of the surface.
3.2. Applications of 3d Metals and 3d-Based Alloys
3.3. Bimetallic Pt-Based Alloys as ORR Catalysts
3.4. Catalytic Trends and Magnetism
- By engineering magnetic catalysts through the increment in their “internal” magnetic properties () (intrinsic fields);
- By the application of an external magnetic field () (extrinsic fields); and
- By combining the previous two options ().
3.5. Improvement of Magnetic Properties of Catalysts (, Intrinsic Magnetism)
3.6. Application of External Magnetic Field (, Extrinsic Magnetism)
- Changes in the mass transport;
- Modification of the heterogeneous electron transfer kinetics and electrochemical equilibria; and
- Influence on electrodeposit morphology.
3.7. Combination of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Magnetism in Catalysis ()
4. Basics of Fuel Cells
4.1. Renewable Energy Demand and Energy Storage Systems
4.2. Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems: Batteries and Fuel Cells
4.3. Fuel Cells
4.4. Thermodynamics of Fuel Cell
- Activation losses, due to kinetics of the electrochemical reaction at the electrodes. A part of the voltage is used to drive the electron transfer from one electrode to the other during the electrochemical reaction (major voltage loss).
- Fuel crossover and internal currents, caused by incomplete fuel utilization. The majority of the fuel reacts, but a small amount diffuses through the electrolyte unused (this loss increases in fuel cells operating at low temperatures).
- Ohmic losses, due to the electrical resistance of the material of the electrodes, the electrolyte solution and other components of the fuel cell.
- Mass transport or concentration losses, connected with the consumption of reactants at the electrode surface, that cause a change in their concentrations (or, more precisely, activities), thus to the voltage.
4.5. Kinetics of Fuel Cell
- is the current density, the current per unit area (A/cm2) (a more important parameter than the simple current, since the reaction takes place at the electrode/electrolyte interface);
- is known as exchange current density;
- is the activation overpotential;
- is the dimensionless charge transfer coefficient that corresponds to the quantity of the electrical energy used to modify the reaction rate at the anode and cathode (its value depends on the type of electrochemical reaction and electrode material, but it ranges from 0 to 1.0) [10];
- is the number of electrons involved in the electrochemical process;
- R is the universal gas constant;
- T is the absolute temperature; and
- F is the faraday constant.
4.6. Types of Fuel Cell
- Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs): They use an alkaline liquid (K2CO3 or KOH) as electrolyte. The first models operated at high temperatures (50–200 °C) [6], but AFCs can operate at lower temperature (20–80 °C) nowadays [3]. No high-profile research on these FCs is currently ongoing, due to their higher capital cost compared to the other fuel cell categories, but they were exploited in the 1960s for space programs with a great deal of success [6].
- Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs): They work at high temperatures (~220 °C) and use an inorganic acid (100% concentrate phosphoric acid) as proton-conducting electrolyte [6]. These were the first examples of commercially available fuel cells, thanks to their reliability as a power source, durability and low maintenance [6]. PAFCs are exploited in power stations nowadays [3].
- Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs): They also operate at high temperatures (600–700 °C), use a molten mixture of alkaline metal carbonate (lithium and potassium or lithium and sodium carbonate) as an electrolyte ((CO3)2− is the mobile ion) [6] and, unlike AFCs and PACFs, exploit abundant metals as catalysts (nickel and nickel oxides). MCFCs display severe corrosion and stability issues at present, making them unappealing for the market [6].
- Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs): They are solid-state devices composed of a solid and a gas phase. The anode contains ceramic zirconia cermet with nickel metal and the cathode contains a mixture of electronically conducting ions and ceramics (for example, strontium-doped lanthanum manganite) [3,10]. SOFCs are currently working at high temperatures (600–1000 °C) [3] and are still under development [10].
4.7. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)
4.7.1. PEMFCs Components
4.7.2. Applications of Magnetic Field in PEMFCs
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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System | NPs Size (nm) | Cell Parameters (nm) | c/a Ratio | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | c | ||||
FePt | |||||
fcc FePt | - | 0.3884 | 0.3884 | 1 | Malheiro [116] |
fct FePt | 6.5 ± 0.3 | 0.3848 | 0.3724 | 0.96 | Xiong [117] |
fct FePt | ~6.1 | 0.27069 | 0.3709 | 1.37 | Chen [118] |
fct FePt | ~6.1 | 0.27248 | 0.37312 | 1.37 | Chen [118] |
CoPt | |||||
fcc CoPt | 2.5 ± 0.2 | 0.3844 | 0.3844 | 1 | Loukrakpam [119] |
fcc CoPt | ~6.2 | 0.3803 | 0.3803 | 1 | Watanabe [120] |
fcc CoPt | 2.5 ± 0.1 | 0.3797 | 0.3797 | 1 | Oezaslan [121] |
fcc CoPt | 2.7 | 0.38732 | 0.38732 | 1 | Travitsky [122] |
fct CoPt | 12.4 ± 1.4 | 0.3814 | 0.3704 | 0.97 | Oezaslan [121] |
fct CoPt | ~6.2 | 0.2692 | 0.3662 | 1.36 | Watanabe [120] |
fct CoPt | ~6 | 0.3780 | 0.3705 | 0.98 | Xiong [117] |
NiPt | |||||
fcc NiPt | 4.7 | 0.3821 | 0.3821 | 1 | Xiong [117] |
fcc NiPt | 4.8 ± 0.5 | 0.3817 | 0.3817 | 1 | Loukrakpam [119] |
fcc NiPt | 2.2 | 0.38486 | 0.38486 | 1 | Travitsky [122] |
fcc NiPt | 3.2 | 0.38204 | 0.38204 | 1 | Travitsky [122] |
fcc NiPt | 6.1 | 0.37368 | 0.37368 | 1 | Carpenter [123] |
Entry | NPs Size (nm) | SA (mA·cm−2) | Tafel Slope (mV·dec−1) | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pt | ||||||
Commercial Pt/C | 2–3 | 0.22 | 0.12 | 75 | 0.883 | Li [243] |
Commercial Pt/C | - | 0.28 | 0.13 | - | - | Li [246] |
Commercial Pt/C | 2.5–3.5 | 0.264 a | - | - | 0.531 | Zhang [247] |
Commercial Pt/C | 3.2 | - | - | - | 0.905 | Liu [248] |
Commercial Pt/C | - | 0.177 | 0.102 | - | 0.864 | Ying [249] |
Pt/C | ~2.7 | 0.07 | - | 68.9 | 0.818 | Du [250] |
Pt/C | - | 0.22 | 0.14 | - | - | Chung [244] |
Pt/C | <7.1 ± 1.6 b | 0.20 | 0.11 | - | - | Loukrakpam [119] |
Pt/C | - | 1.70 c | - | - | - | Gong [251] |
Pt black | - | 0.221 | 0.042 | - | 0.868 | Ying [249] |
FePt | ||||||
fcc FePt/C | 8.5 ± 0.5 | 0.89 a | - | - | 0.533 | Zhang [247] |
fcc FePt/C | <10 | - | - | - | 0.890 | Li [246] |
fcc FePt/C | 2.6 c | 3.95 | - | - | - | Gong [251] |
fcc FePt/CNT | 2–3 | - | - | - | 0.894 | Liu [248] |
fct FePt/C | ~6.1 | 0.578 | 0.272 | - | - | Chen [118] |
fct FePt/C | 8.5 ± 0.5 | 2.1 a | - | - | 0.562 | Zhang [247] |
fct FePt/C | 8.8 ± 0.5 | 3.16 | 0.69 | - | 0.958 | Li [246] |
fct FePt/C | 8.0 ± 0.5 | - | 0.7 | - | 0.945 | Li [242] |
fct FePt/C | 6.5 | 2.3 | 1.6 | - | - | Chung [244] |
fct FePt/C | ~6.1 | 0.589 | 0.230 | - | - | Chen [118] |
fct FePt | ~3.6 | 0.37 | - | 65.8 | 0.893 | Du [250] |
fct FePt/CNT | 3–13 | 0.26 | 0.308 | - | 0.921 | Liu [248] |
CoPt | ||||||
fcc CoPt | 8.9 ± 0.8 | 0.70 | 0.15 | 86 | - | Li [243] |
fcc CoPt/C | 2.5 ± 0.2 b | 0.57 | 0.25 | - | - | Loukrakpam [119] |
fcc CoPt/Co@NHPCC | - | 0.876 | 0.566 | - | 0.883 | Ying [249] |
fct PtCo | 3.8 ± 1.1 | - | 0.25 ± 0.07 | 88 | - | Oezaslan [121] |
fct CoPt | 8.9 ± 0.8 | 8.26 | 2.26 | 66 | 0.967 | Li [243] |
NiPt | ||||||
fcc NiPt/C | 4.8 ± 0.5 b | 0.69 | 0.17 | - | - | Loukrakpam [119] |
fcc NiPt/C | 6.1 | 2.977 | 0.68 | - | - | Carpenter [123] |
MPt | Preparation Method | MxPt1−x | Structural Parameters | Magnetic Properties | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FePt | |||||
fcc | DC sputtering (pprep = 1 mbar) | Fe62Pt38 | NPsize = 4.6, Polycrystalline | Hc = 1.48·103, TB = 53–100 | Rellinghaus [105] |
fcc | Microwave heating method | - | NPsize = 2.7 | SP | Nguyen [311] |
fcc | Synthetic chemical method | - | NPsize = 2.25 | SP, TB = 14 | Nguyen [104] |
fcc | Co-reduction chemical method | - | NPsize~3 | SP | Medwal [312] |
fcc | Modified polyol process | Fe52Pt48 | - | SP, TB = 20–30 | Sun [313] |
fcc | Chemical solution method | Fe52Pt48 | NPsize = 4 | - | Rong [314] |
fct Partially Ordered | Microwave heating method + annealing under Ar + 5%H2 flowing atmosphere at ~637 K for ~6 min | Fe48Pt52 (fct > fcc) | NPsize~24 c/a = 0.9675 | Hc = 10.6·103 | Nguyen [311] |
fct Partially Ordered | DC sputtering (pprep = 1 mbar) + gas-phase sintering at 1073 K | Fe62Pt38 | NPsize~7.5 | TB = 309 | Rellinghaus [105] |
fct Partially Ordered | DC sputtering (pprep = 1.5 mbar) + gas-phase sintering at 1273 K | Fe51Pt49 | NPsize~7.2 | TB = 309 | Rellinghaus [105] |
fct Partially Ordered | DC sputtering (pprep = 1 mbar) + gas-phase sintering at 1273 K | Fe62Pt38 | NPsize~7.7 | TB = 530, Hc = 1.2·103 | Rellinghaus [105] |
fct Partially Ordered | Synthetic chemical method + annealing under Ar + 5%H2 flowing atmosphere at 662 K for 18 h | Fe56Pt44 %fcc > %fct | NPsize = 6.09 | Hc = 1.3·103 | Nguyen [104] |
fct Partially Ordered | Co-reduction chemical method + annealing at 873 K | 38% fcc +62% fct | NPsize~5 c/a = 0.9848 | Hc soft-phase = 890 + Hc hard-phase = 11,930 | Medwal [312] |
fct Partially Ordered | Co-reduction chemical method + annealing at 973 K | 10% fcc +90% fct | NPsize~5 c/a = 0.9801 | Hc soft-phase = 3250 + Hc hard-phase = 12,310 | Medwal [312] |
fct Partially Ordered | Co-reduction chemical method + annealing at 1023 K | 5% fcc + 95% fct | NPsize > 5 c/a = 0.9692 | Hc soft-phase = 6970 + Hc hard-phase = 13,940 | Medwal [312] |
fct Partially Ordered | Chemical synthesis + annealing at 973 K for 2 h under atmosphere of 4%H2 | Fe52Pt48 24% fcc +76% fct | NPsize~20 c/a = 0.9626 S = 0.64 | Hc = 7212, (BH)max~6.31 Ms = 34.90 | Srivastava [315] |
fct | Chemical synthesis + annealing at 973 K for 4 h under 4% H2 atmosphere | Fe52Pt48 11%fcc + 89%fct | NPsize~20 c/a = 0.9646 S = 0.88 | Hc = 8617, (BH)max~10.92 Ms = 30.80 | Srivastava [315] |
fct | Chemical synthesis + annealing at 973 K for 6 h under atmosphere of 4% H2 | Fe52Pt48 9% fcc + 91% fct | NPsize~20 c/a = 0.9626 S = 0.95 | Hc = 9040, (BH)max~7.60 Ms = 32.45, Ku~6.02·107 | Srivastava [315] |
fct | Chemical solution route + 1 h annealing under forming gas (Ar + 7% H2) at 973 K | Fe55Pt45 | NPsize = 10–20 | Hc = 18·103 | Rong [106] |
fct | Chemical solution route + 1 h annealing under forming gas (Ar + 7% H2) at 973 K | Fe66Pt34 | NPsize = 10–20 | Hc = 7.6·103, (BH)max~17 | Rong [106] |
fct | Chemical solution route + rapid thermal annealing at 923 K for 10 s | Close to Fe50Pt50 | NPsize = 8 S = 0.97 | (BH)max~12.7 | Yano [316] |
fct | Modified polyol process + annealing at 833 K for 30 min in static N2 atmosphere (p = 1 atm) | Fe52Pt48 | NPsize = 4 | FM | Sun [313] |
fct | Chemical solution method + annealing at 973 K for 4 h under forming gas (93%Ar + 7%H2) | Fe52Pt48 | NPsize = 8.2 S~0.93 | FM | Rong [314] |
CoPt | |||||
fcc | Polyol process | Close to Co50Pt50 | NPsize = 4 ± 1 | Hc = 380, Ms = 8 | Chinnasamy [317] |
fcc | Redox transmetallation reaction | Co46Pt54 | NPsize = 1.9 ± 0.3 | SP, TB = 15 | Park [318] |
fcc | Soft chemical processing route + annealing at 673 K for 3 h under Ar atmosphere | Co46Pt54 | NPsize = 4–7 elongated shape c/a = 0.9732 | Hc = 260 | Fang [319] |
fcc | Redox transmetallation reaction | - | NPsize~5 with Pt-shell~1.5 nm | Hc = 0, TB = 66 Ms = 27(//) and 27(⊥) | Bigot [320] |
fct | Chemical process + annealing at 923 K for 1 h under Ar/5% H2 flowing atmosphere | Co50Pt50 | NPsize = 7.6 rod-like shape | Hc = 12·103, Ku = 1.7·107 | Sun [127] |
fct | Polyol process + annealing at 823 K for 1 h under H2/N2 atmosphere | Close to Co50Pt50 | NPsize = 4 ± 1 | Hc = 1.34·103 | Chinnasamy [317] |
fct | Polyol process + annealing at 873 K or 1 h under H2/N2 atmosphere | Close to Co50Pt50 | NPsize = 4 ± 1 | Hc = 3.67·103 | Chinnasamy [317] |
fct | Polyol process + annealing at 973 K for 1 h under H2/N2 atmosphere | Close to Co50Pt50 | NPsize = 4 ± 1 | Hc = 7.57·103 | Chinnasamy [317] |
fct | Pellet of NPs obtain from fcc core–shell with a Co-core and a Pt-shell after annealing at 723 K for 1 h in primary vacuum | - | NPsize = 8 | Hc = 50(//) and 50(⊥), TB = 347 Ms = 181(//) and 151(⊥) Ku ≈ 1.8·105 | Bigot [320] |
System | Preparation Method | Size | Composition | SA | Tafel Slope | Magnetic Properties | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FePt | |||||||
fcc FePt/C | Chemical synthesis | 8.5 ± 0.5 | As-prepared: Fe51Pt49; Core–shell: Fe26Pt74 with a Pt-shell of ~3 atomic layers (~0.6 nm) | 0.89 a | - | - | Zhang [247] |
fcc FePt/C | Chemical method | <10 | Fe52Pt48 | - | - | SP | Li [246] |
fcc FePt/C | Bönnemann colloidal method | 2.6 | ~Fe50Pt50 | 3.95 b | - | - | Gong [251] |
fcc FePt/CNT | Chemical reduction method | 2–3 | - | - | - | - | Liu [248] |
fct FePt/C | Impregnation method + annealing at ~873 K for 3 h under an 8% H2/Ar gas mixture | ~6.1 | Core–shell with ~0.6 nm of Pt coating (2–4 atomic layers) | 0.578 | - | - | Chen [118] |
fct FePt/C | Chemical synthesis + annealing at ~923 K for 1 h under 95% Ar + 5% H2 atmosphere | 8.5 ± 0.5 | As-prepared: Fe51Pt49; Core–shell: Fe26Pt74 with a Pt-shell of ~3 atomic layers (~0.6 nm) | 2.1 a | - | - | Zhang [247] |
fct FePt/C | Chemical method + annealing at ~973 K for 6 h under Ar + 5% H2 | 8.8 ± 0.5 | As-prepared: Fe52Pt48; Core–shell: Fe50Pt50 with a Pt-shell of ~0.6 nm (~2–4 atomic layers) | 3.16 | - | Hc = 33·103 for as-prepared NPs | Li [246] |
fct FePt/C | Modified chemical method + annealing at ~973 K for 6 h under 95% Ar + 5% H2 atmosphere | 8.0 ± 0.5 | Core–shell: Fe42Pt58 with a Pt-shell of 0.53 nm (~2 atomic layers); degree of ordering >80% | - | - | FM; Hc = 33.8·103 | Li [242] |
fct FePt/C | Chemical synthesis + annealing at ~973 K | 6.5 | Core–shell with ~0.43 nm of N-doped carbon shell (~2 atomic layers) | 2.3 | - | - | Chung [244] |
fct FePt/C | Impregnation method + annealing at ~1073 K for 3 h under an 8% H2/Ar gas mixture | ~6.1 | Core–shell with ~0.6 nm of Pt coating (2–4 atomic layers) | 0.589 | - | - | Chen [118] |
fct FePt/C | Liquid-phase reduction method + annealing at ~1173 K in a tube furnace under vacuum | ~3.6 | - | 0.37 | 65.8 | - | Du [250] |
fct FePt/CNT | Chemical reduction method + annealing at ~923 K under H2-free inert atmosphere | 3–13 | Core–shell with ~3 atomic layers of Pt coating | 0.26 | - | - | Liu [248] |
CoPt | |||||||
fcc CoPt/C | Chemical method | 8.9 ± 0.8 | As-prepared: Co49Pt51 | 0.70 | 86 | SP | Li [243] |
fcc CoPt/C | Chemical synthesis | 2.5 ± 0.2 | Pt52Co48 | 0.57 c | - | - | Loukrakpam [119] |
fcc CoPt/ Co@NHPCC | Chemical synthesis | - | - | 0.876 | - | - | Ying [249] |
fct PtCo/C | Liquid precursor impregnation–freeze-drying method + annealing at ~1037 K for 7 h under 4 Vol% H2/96 Vol% Ar atmosphere | 3.8 ± 1.1 | As-prepared: Pt59Co41 After stability treatment: Pt77Co23 85% fct + 15% fcc | - | 88 | - | Oezaslan [121] |
fct CoPt/C | Chemical method + annealing at ~923 K for 6 h under 95% Ar + 5% H2 atmosphere | 8.9 ± 0.8 | As-prepared: Co49Pt51; Core–shell with a Pt-shell of 3 atomic layers 88% fct + 12% fcc | 8.26 | 66 | FM; HC = 7.1·103 for as-prepared NPs | Li [243] |
NiPt | |||||||
fcc NiPt/C | Chemical synthesis | 4.8 ± 0.5 | Pt56Ni44 | 0.69 c | - | - | Loukrakpam [119] |
fcc NiPt/C | Solvothermal reaction | 6.1 | Ni47Pt53 | 2.977 | - | - | Carpenter [123] |
Catalyst | Three-Electrode and External Magnetic Field Parameters | Experimental Observations | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Direct application of external magnetic fields | |||
Pt/ FM CoPt nanowire/alumina membrane |
|
| Chaure [377] |
Pt/alumina membrane | |||
Indirect application of external magnetic fields (magnetization of catalyst) | |||
L10-PtFe nanopillar (FM) |
|
| Lu [379] |
Pt/Ag/CoPt nanowire |
|
| Chaure [378] |
Battery | Characteristics | Advantages | Limitations | Examples |
---|---|---|---|---|
Primary batteries |
|
|
| Zinc–carbon, alkaline, lithium primary cells |
Secondary batteries |
|
|
| Lead acid, lithium ion, nickel–cadmium |
Battery systems for grid-scale energy |
|
|
| Flow, sodium–sulfur |
Fuel cells |
|
|
| Proton exchange membrane, direct methanol, solid oxide |
Electrochem. capacitors (or supercapacitors) |
|
|
| Carbon-based, metal oxide, polymeric |
Strength | Weakness | Opportunities | Threats |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
Catalyst (Cathode) | PEMFC and MF Parameters | Experimental Observations | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Single Fuel Cell experiments under an applied magnetic field | |||
Pt |
|
| Matsushima [397] |
Pt |
|
| Lang [419] |
Not reported |
|
| Ruksawong [420] |
Single Fuel Cell experiments with magnetized catalyst | |||
Nd-Fe-B + 20% Pt/Vulcan XC72 |
|
| Okada [381] |
Pt-Co/ MWCNTs |
|
| Sun [421] |
Nd2Fe14B/C+ 50% Pt/C |
|
| Shi [384] |
Fuel cell stack experiments | |||
Pt |
|
| Abdel-Rehim [418] |
Effects of Engineering Magnetic Catalysts with FM Metals | Effects of Applying an External Magnetic Field | Effects of Combining Engineered Magnetic Catalysts with FM Metals and Applied External Magnetic Field |
---|---|---|
|
|
|
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Biz, C.; Gracia, J.; Fianchini, M. Review on Magnetism in Catalysis: From Theory to PEMFC Applications of 3d Metal Pt-Based Alloys. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 14768. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314768
Biz C, Gracia J, Fianchini M. Review on Magnetism in Catalysis: From Theory to PEMFC Applications of 3d Metal Pt-Based Alloys. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(23):14768. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314768
Chicago/Turabian StyleBiz, Chiara, José Gracia, and Mauro Fianchini. 2022. "Review on Magnetism in Catalysis: From Theory to PEMFC Applications of 3d Metal Pt-Based Alloys" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 23: 14768. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314768