Changes in Polychlorinated Biphenyl Residues in Milk during Lactation: Levels of Contamination, Influencing Factors, and Infant Risk Assessment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Characteristics of Study Participants and Their Diets during Pregnancy
2.2. Composition of Human Milk during Lactation
2.3. Changes in PCB Contents in Human Milk throughout the Duration of Lactation
2.3.1. ndl-PCBs
2.3.2. dl-PCBs
- non-ortho PCBs
- mono-ortho PCBs
2.4. Redundancy Analysis (RDA)—Influence of the Frequency of Pregnant Women’s Consumption of Foodstuffs and Changes in PCB Contents in Human Milk
2.5. Infant Risk Assessment Linked with the Content of PCBs in Human Milk
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Participants and Biological Study Material
4.2. Chemical Materials—Reagents
- 6 PCB-Seven Key Isomers NE 5575 (IUPAC No. PCBs 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153): LGC Ltd., Wesel, Germany.
- 12 non-ortho and mono-ortho PCB-CERTAN© NE 5570 LGC Ltd. (IUPAC No. PCBs 77, 81, 123, 105, 114, 126, 156, 157, 180, 169, 167, 189): LGC Standards, Wesel, Germany.
- Reference material BCR 450-PCBs in natural milk powder: Community Bureau of Reference, Belgium.
- Pesticides Surrogate Spike Mix 4–8460, Supelco (Bellefonte, PA, USA).
- 13C12-labeled PCB Mixture-A, CIL (Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Inc.) EC-4938, containing: 3,3′,4,4′-TetraCB; 3,4,4′,5′-TetraCB; 2′,3,4,4′,5-PentaCB; 3,3′,4,4′,5-PentaCB; 3,3′,4,4′,5,5′-HexaCB; and 2,2′,3,4,4′,5,5′-HeptaCB.
4.3. Methodology
- Estimating the contamination of milk with the following compounds: non-ortho PCBs (IUPAC No. 77, 81, 126, 169), mono-ortho PCBs (105, 114, 118, 156, 157), and PCB indicator congeners (28, 52, 101, 138, 153, 180).
- Assessing infant health risk with the parameters of TEQPCB and tolerable weekly intake (TWI).
- Analyzing the residues detected with regard to current regulations on maximum levels allowed in foods for infants and young children.
4.4. Analytical Methodology
4.5. Quality Control
4.6. Estimated Health Risk
4.7. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No. | Basic Information on Mother and Child | Response Provided in Questionaire | Percentage of Provided Responses (%) |
---|---|---|---|
1. | mother’s age (years) | <18 | 4.2 (%) |
18–22 | - | ||
23–27 | 25 (%) | ||
28–32 | 37.5 (%) | ||
33–36 | 33.3 (%) | ||
2. | body weight prior to pregnancy (kg) | <55 | 25 (%) |
56–60 | 12.5 (%) | ||
61–65 | 20.8 (%) | ||
>65 | 41.7 (%) | ||
3. | body weight in the first week after childbirth (kg) | 55–60 | 20.8 (%) |
61–65 | 20.8 (%) | ||
66–70 | 25 (%) | ||
>70 | 33.4 (%) | ||
4. | place of residence | city > 5000 inhabitants | 83.3 (%) |
town < 5000 inhabitants | 4.2 (%) | ||
country | 12.5 (%) | ||
5. | education | primary | 4.2 (%) |
secondary | - | ||
higher | 95.8 (%) | ||
6. | number of childbirths performed | 1 | 62.5 (%) |
2–3 | 37.5 (%) | ||
≥4 | - | ||
7. | type of birth | natural forces | 50 (%) |
c-section | 50 (%) | ||
8. | infant’s sex | boy | 62.5 (%) |
girl | 37.5 (%) | ||
9. | infant’s body weight in the first week (kg) | 2.4–2.8 | 4.2 (%) |
2.9–3.2 | 45.8 (%) | ||
3.3–3.6 | 45.8 (%) | ||
3.7–4.0 | - | ||
>4.0 | 4.2 (%) | ||
10. | smoking | never smoked | 75 (%) |
quitted before pregnancy | 16.7 (%) | ||
used to smoke (number of packs of 20 cigarettes): | |||
| 4.2 (%) 4.2 (%) |
Sample Collection Period | Number of Samples | Σndl-PCB ng/g Lipids | CV b | Σnon-ortho PCB ng/g Lipids | CV | Σmono-ortho PCB ng/g Lipids | CV |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<7 days | 17 a | 16.63 ± 1.37 | 8.24 | 1.71 ± 0.23 | 13.31 | 7.84 ± 0.75 | 9.52 |
7 days | 26 | 19.83 ± 1.26 | 6.35 | 3.81 ± 0.50 | 13.15 | 14.85 ± 1.19 | 8.01 |
14 days | 59 | 20.31 ± 1.36 | 6.70 | 3.04 ± 0.44 | 14.52 | 12.19 ± 1.04 | 8.53 |
21 days | 98 | 17.94 ± 1.10 | 6.13 | 2.45 ± 0.32 | 13.00 | 9.85 ± 0.83 | 8.43 |
28 days | 39 | 14.49 ± 0.74 | 5.11 | 2.37 ± 0.22 | 9.12 | 8.56 ± 0.94 | 10.98 |
2 months | 75 | 15.90 ± 1.25 | 7.86 | 2.06 ± 0.20 | 9.81 | 8.99 ± 0.74 | 8.26 |
3 months | 75 | 15.24 ± 1.14 | 7.48 | 1.65 ± 0.15 | 9.02 | 7.02 ± 0.61 | 8.65 |
4 months | 92 | 15.22 ± 1.14 | 7.49 | 1.47 ± 0.18 | 12.22 | 6.21 ± 0.65 | 10.44 |
5 months | 88 | 12.83 ± 0.97 | 7.56 | 1.39 ± 0.19 | 13.54 | 5.23 ± 0.55 | 10.43 |
6 months | 88 | 10.82 ± 0.89 | 8.23 | 1.36 ± 0.09 | 6.72 | 3.37 ± 0.42 | 12.42 |
7 months | 69 | 15.39 ± 1.46 | 9.49 | 1.25 ± 0.07 | 5.77 | 4.23 ± 0.38 | 8.95 |
8 months | 39 | 15.71 ± 1.32 | 8.40 | 1.16 ± 0.10 | 8.89 | 3.55 ± 0.43 | 12.04 |
9 months | 29 | 13.81 ± 1.28 | 9.27 | 1.15 ± 0.12 | 10.49 | 2.85 ± 0.37 | 12.84 |
10 months | 29 | 11.63 ± 0.88 | 7.57 | 0.74 ± 0.12 | 16.02 | 2.35 ± 0.27 | 11.54 |
11 months | 29 | 10.48 ± 0.72 | 6.87 | 0.42 ± 0.06 | 14.89 | 1.76 ± 0.22 | 12.75 |
12 months | 29 | 7.75 ± 0.54 | 7.00 | 0.15 ± 0.03 | 18.82 | 1.02 ± 0.17 | 17.12 |
>1 year of feeding | 39 | 0.343 ± 0.035 | 10.20 | 0.14 ± 0.05 | 32.16 | 0.21 ± 0.04 | 17.45 |
average content | 13.78 ± 4.76 | 1.55 ± 0.98 | 5.89 ± 4.09 |
Chromatograph Operating Parameters HP 8890/5977 | |
---|---|
column furnace program | 130 °C (0.5 min) → increase 7 °C/min → 200 °C (5 min) → 4 °C/min → 280 °C (10 min) → 290 °C (5 min) |
injection in the column | 2 µL |
carrier gas | helium |
flow through the column | 1.1 mL/min |
duration of the analysis | 50 min |
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Witczak, A.; Pohoryło, A.; Aftyka, A.; Pokorska-Niewiada, K.; Witczak, G. Changes in Polychlorinated Biphenyl Residues in Milk during Lactation: Levels of Contamination, Influencing Factors, and Infant Risk Assessment. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 12717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232112717
Witczak A, Pohoryło A, Aftyka A, Pokorska-Niewiada K, Witczak G. Changes in Polychlorinated Biphenyl Residues in Milk during Lactation: Levels of Contamination, Influencing Factors, and Infant Risk Assessment. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(21):12717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232112717
Chicago/Turabian StyleWitczak, Agata, Anna Pohoryło, Aleksandra Aftyka, Kamila Pokorska-Niewiada, and Grzegorz Witczak. 2022. "Changes in Polychlorinated Biphenyl Residues in Milk during Lactation: Levels of Contamination, Influencing Factors, and Infant Risk Assessment" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 21: 12717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232112717