Non-Musculoskeletal Benefits of Vitamin D beyond the Musculoskeletal System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biology and Metabolism
2.1. Classical Pathway of Vitamin D Activation
2.2. Non-Classical Pathway of Vitamin D Activation
3. Definition of Vitamin D Deficiency
4. Factors Leading to Vitamin D Deficiency
4.1. Exposure to Sunlight
4.2. Cutaneous Factors
4.3. Bioavailability of Vitamin D after Oral Ingestion or Cutaneous Synthesis
4.3.1. Bioavailability Decrease
Fat Malabsorption
Obesity
4.3.2. Increases in the Metabolism of Vitamin D
Liver Disease
Kidney Disease
5. Impacts of Vitamin D on Musculoskeletal Health
5.1. Vitamin D and Bones
5.2. Rickets
5.3. Osteoporosis and Osteomalacia
5.4. Muscle Weakness and Falls
6. Impact of Vitamin D on Non-Musculoskeletal Health
6.1. Immunomodulatory Functions
6.1.1. Autoimmune Diseases
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Multiple Sclerosis
Asthma
Type 1 Diabetes (T1D)
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
6.1.2. Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases
Vitamin D and COVID-19
6.2. Cancers
6.3. Cardiovascular Diseases
6.4. Neuropsychological Functioning
6.5. UV-Induced Damage
7. Vitamin D Toxicity
8. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
1α,25(OH)2D | 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D |
25(OH)D | 25-hydroxyvitamin D |
APC | antigen-presenting cell |
ARDS | acute respiratory distress syndrome |
BMI | body mass index |
CYP | cytochrome P450 |
CYP27B1 | cytochrome P450 27B1 |
CD | Crohn’s disease |
CHD | coronary heart disease |
CVD | cardiovascular disease |
DC | dendritic cell |
DBP | vitamin D binding protein |
DU | Dobson unit |
HPLC | high performance liquid chromatography |
IBD | inflammatory bowel disease |
IL | interleukin |
IFN | interferon |
IU | international unit |
Mtb | Mycobacterium tuberculosis |
MS | multiple sclerosis |
NOX | reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase |
PBMC | peripheral blood mononuclear cell |
PTH | parathyroid hormone |
RA | rheumatoid arthritis |
RANKL | receptor activator of nuclear factor-κ B ligand |
RCT | randomized controlled trial |
RXR | retinoid-X receptor |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
RNS | reactive nitrogen species |
SLE | systemic lupus erythematosus |
SZA | solar zenith angle |
Th1 | T helper 1 |
TLR | toll-like receptor |
TNF | tumor necrosis factor |
Treg | T regulatory cell |
T1D | type 1 diabetes |
UVB | ultraviolet B |
UC | ulcerative colitis |
VDR | vitamin D receptor |
VDRE | vitamin D response element |
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Zhang, S.; Miller, D.D.; Li, W. Non-Musculoskeletal Benefits of Vitamin D beyond the Musculoskeletal System. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 2128. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042128
Zhang S, Miller DD, Li W. Non-Musculoskeletal Benefits of Vitamin D beyond the Musculoskeletal System. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(4):2128. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042128
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Sicheng, Duane D. Miller, and Wei Li. 2021. "Non-Musculoskeletal Benefits of Vitamin D beyond the Musculoskeletal System" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 4: 2128. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042128