Janus-Faced Molecules against Plant Pathogenic Fungi
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Aspergillus Toxins
1.2. Structural and Toxic Similarities of Aspergillus Mycotoxins
1.3. Fusarium Toxins
1.4. Cryptococcus Toxins
1.5. Toxins Inhibiting the Growth of Aspergillus Species
2. Animal Models to Test Mycoses Caused by Plant Pathogenic Fungi
Detection of Serum Beta (1-3)-D-Glucan
3. Treatment of Plant Pathogenic Fungal Infections
3.1. Therapy of Invasive Plant Mycoses
Aspergillosis and Cryptococcosis
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- Infection with conidial spores of Aspergillus species should be avoided.
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- Filtered air should be introduced into the air-conditioning systems in bone and marrow transplant units.
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- Invasive aspergillosis can be effectively treated with azoles, especially with voriconazole.
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- Due to the relatively fast-developing resistance, the combined therapy of voriconazole with amphotericin B or in combination with other fungal agents is recommended.
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- Double and triple antifungal combinations against clinical isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus and A. terreus are recommended. Combinations of caspofungin with either amphotericin B or voriconazole were additive for all the isolates, and antagonism was not observed. In contrast, the interaction between voriconazole and fluorocytosine was not synergistic; rather, antagonism was noted for 93% of the isolates [116].
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- Prophylactic measures should be taken to prevent the infection of the personnel.
4. Functional Groups of Aminoglycosides against Plant Pathogenic Fungi
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
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- Cytotoxicity is attributable to the presence of multiple hydroxyl groups. In poly-hydroxylated benzenes, toxicity is associated with hydrophobicity and the probability of radical formation [123];
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- Mutagenicity and genotoxicity could be contributed by the simultaneous presence of keto, hydroxy, and cumulative presence of carboxy groups, although the genotoxicity and mutagenicity of ketamines are doubted [124];
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- Ring structures are not aromatic and do not contribute to genotoxicity. Examples are most of the vitamins, nucleic acids, enzymes, coenzymes, hormones, and alkaloids containing N-based heterocycles as scaffolds;
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- Polyhydroxy and carbonyl (=CO) groups contribute to the oxidation state but are biodegradable;
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- Poly(hydroxy acids) are prepared by the self-condensation polymerization of hydroxy acids. They are biodegradable and have the potential to be chemically recycled [127];
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- Gentamicins are less toxic than one would expect from their oxygen-containing substituents.
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Banfalvi, G. Janus-Faced Molecules against Plant Pathogenic Fungi. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 12323. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212323
Banfalvi G. Janus-Faced Molecules against Plant Pathogenic Fungi. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(22):12323. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212323
Chicago/Turabian StyleBanfalvi, Gaspar. 2021. "Janus-Faced Molecules against Plant Pathogenic Fungi" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 22: 12323. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212323