Neurobiology of Cancer: The Role of β-Adrenergic Receptor Signaling in Various Tumor Environments
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Norepinephrine and Epinephrine, the Effector Molecules of Sympathoadrenal System
3. Norepinephrine and Epinephrine Effects on Cancer
3.1. Effects of β-Adrenergic Signaling at the Level of Tumor Microenvironment
3.1.1. β-Adrenergic Signaling Induces Genome Instability and Mutation, and Attenuates DNA Damage Repair Mechanisms
3.1.2. β-Adrenergic Signaling Potentiates Sustained Proliferative Signaling
3.1.3. β-Adrenergic Signaling Increases Resistance to Cell Death
3.1.4. β-Adrenergic Signaling Induces Cell Motility and Trafficking and Activates Invasion and Metastasis
3.1.5. β-Adrenergic Signaling Induces Vascular Remodeling and Stimulates Angiogenesis
3.1.6. β-Adrenergic Signaling Induces Avoidance to Immune Destruction
3.1.7. β-Adrenergic Signaling Induces Tumor-Promoting Inflammation
3.1.8. β-Adrenergic Signaling Affects Cancer Cell Energetics
3.2. Effects of β-Adrenergic Signaling at the Level of the Tumor Macroenvironment
3.2.1. Nervous System
The Sympathoadrenal System Affects Metastasis
3.2.2. Immune System
3.2.3. Endocrine System
3.2.4. Metabolism
3.2.5. Microbiota
3.2.6. Somatic Diseases Predisposing to Cancer that Are Characterized by Increased β-Adrenergic Signaling
3.3. Effects of β-Adrenergic Signaling at the Level of Psychosocial and Spiritual/Noetic Environments
4. Therapeutic Implications and Future Directions
4.1. Pharmacological Approaches
4.2. Non-Pharmacological Approaches
4.3. The Source of Ambiguity
4.4. Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mravec, B.; Horvathova, L.; Hunakova, L. Neurobiology of Cancer: The Role of β-Adrenergic Receptor Signaling in Various Tumor Environments. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 7958. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21217958
Mravec B, Horvathova L, Hunakova L. Neurobiology of Cancer: The Role of β-Adrenergic Receptor Signaling in Various Tumor Environments. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(21):7958. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21217958
Chicago/Turabian StyleMravec, Boris, Lubica Horvathova, and Luba Hunakova. 2020. "Neurobiology of Cancer: The Role of β-Adrenergic Receptor Signaling in Various Tumor Environments" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 21: 7958. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21217958