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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

From Waste to Biocatalyst: Cocoa Bean Shells as Immobilization Support and Substrate Source in Lipase-Catalyzed Hydrolysis

by
Luciana Lordelo Nascimento
1,
Bruna Louise de Moura Pita
2,
César de Almeida Rodrigues
3,
Paulo Natan Alves dos Santos
4,
Yslaine Andrade de Almeida
5,
Larissa da Silveira Ferreira
1,
Maira Lima de Oliveira
2,
Lorena Santos de Almeida
1,
Cleide Maria Faria Soares
3,
Fabio de Souza Dias
6 and
Alini Tinoco Fricks
1,2,*
1
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência de Alimentos, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador 40170-115, BA, Brazil
2
Departamento de Análises Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador 40170-115, BA, Brazil
3
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia Industrial, Universidade Tiradentes, Aracaju 49032-490, SE, Brazil
4
Rede Nordeste de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, São Cristóvão 49107-230, SE, Brazil
5
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, São Cristóvão 49107-230, SE, Brazil
6
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador 40170-115, BA, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2025, 30(15), 3207; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30153207
Submission received: 30 June 2025 / Revised: 27 July 2025 / Accepted: 29 July 2025 / Published: 30 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biotechnology and Biomass Valorization)
Versions Notes

Abstract

: This study reports the development of a sustainable biocatalyst system for free fatty acid (FFA) production from cocoa bean shell (CBS) oil using Burkholderia cepacia lipase (BCL). CBS was explored as both a support material and a reaction substrate. Six immobilized systems were prepared using organic (CBS), inorganic (silica), and hybrid (CBS–silica) supports via physical adsorption or covalent binding. Among them, the covalently immobilized enzyme on CBS (ORG-CB) showed the most balanced performance, achieving a catalytic efficiency (Ke) of 0.063 mM−1·min−1 (18.6% of the free enzyme), broad pH–temperature tolerance, and over 50% activity retention after eight reuse cycles. Thermodynamic analysis confirmed enhanced thermal resistance for ORG-CB (Ed = 32.3 kJ mol−1; ΔH‡ = 29.7 kJ mol−1), while kinetic evaluation revealed that its thermal deactivation occurred faster than for the free enzyme under prolonged heating. In application trials, ORG-CB reached 60.1% FFA conversion from CBS oil, outperforming the free enzyme (49.9%). These findings validate CBS as a dual-function material for enzyme immobilization and valorization of agro-industrial waste. The results also reinforce the impact of immobilization chemistry and support composition on the operational and thermal performance of biocatalysts, contributing to the advancement of green chemistry strategies in enzyme-based processing.
Keywords: cocoa bean shells; immobilization; lipase; cocoa bean shell oil; free fatty acids cocoa bean shells; immobilization; lipase; cocoa bean shell oil; free fatty acids

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MDPI and ACS Style

Lordelo Nascimento, L.; Pita, B.L.d.M.; Rodrigues, C.d.A.; dos Santos, P.N.A.; Almeida, Y.A.d.; Ferreira, L.d.S.; de Oliveira, M.L.; de Almeida, L.S.; Soares, C.M.F.; de Souza Dias, F.; et al. From Waste to Biocatalyst: Cocoa Bean Shells as Immobilization Support and Substrate Source in Lipase-Catalyzed Hydrolysis. Molecules 2025, 30, 3207. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30153207

AMA Style

Lordelo Nascimento L, Pita BLdM, Rodrigues CdA, dos Santos PNA, Almeida YAd, Ferreira LdS, de Oliveira ML, de Almeida LS, Soares CMF, de Souza Dias F, et al. From Waste to Biocatalyst: Cocoa Bean Shells as Immobilization Support and Substrate Source in Lipase-Catalyzed Hydrolysis. Molecules. 2025; 30(15):3207. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30153207

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lordelo Nascimento, Luciana, Bruna Louise de Moura Pita, César de Almeida Rodrigues, Paulo Natan Alves dos Santos, Yslaine Andrade de Almeida, Larissa da Silveira Ferreira, Maira Lima de Oliveira, Lorena Santos de Almeida, Cleide Maria Faria Soares, Fabio de Souza Dias, and et al. 2025. "From Waste to Biocatalyst: Cocoa Bean Shells as Immobilization Support and Substrate Source in Lipase-Catalyzed Hydrolysis" Molecules 30, no. 15: 3207. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30153207

APA Style

Lordelo Nascimento, L., Pita, B. L. d. M., Rodrigues, C. d. A., dos Santos, P. N. A., Almeida, Y. A. d., Ferreira, L. d. S., de Oliveira, M. L., de Almeida, L. S., Soares, C. M. F., de Souza Dias, F., & Fricks, A. T. (2025). From Waste to Biocatalyst: Cocoa Bean Shells as Immobilization Support and Substrate Source in Lipase-Catalyzed Hydrolysis. Molecules, 30(15), 3207. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30153207

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